Jay Brown

I have mild ulcerative colitis which I hardly even notice, but I need to keep it in check so it does not progress and increase my chances of colon cancer. Those with colitis are six times more likely to develop colon cancer. Before starting this curated paper I reviewed the cancer dysbiosis article which suddenly has new meaning for me as I’ve been researching my own disease in the last couple of days. The effects of the microbiome on cancer development are hardly surprising at this point. While researching colitis I was shocked to read a study that compared the benefit of an anti-inflammatory drug (mesalamine) that I am currently taking with the benefit of a particular bacterial strain, Escherichia coli Nissle,  taken as an oral probiotic. The bacteria was just as helpful as mesalamine in inducing and maintaining remission from symptoms. This blows my mind. Why am I not taking this probiotic instead? I also found a study done at Stanford that revealed a link between ulcerative colitis patients and the absence of a specific bacteria, Ruminococcaceae, that is primarily responsible for producing secondary bile acids from primary bile acids. Low levels of secondary bile acids are characteristic of ulcerative colitis and the related Crohn’s disease. Inflammatory bowel disease has no known cause and no cure, yet it seems very apparent that microbiome imbalance is a culprit and regaining that balance seems a likely cure. I am eager to learn more.

In Animal Behavior we watched a documentary called “The Mind’s Eye” about the way the brain processes visual information. It highlighted several individuals that each suffered a specific and symmetrical brain injury that damaged the visual system of the brain in a way that teaches us about the function of that area. One person could not recognize objects that he saw. If he felt an object he could tell what it was and he could pull up detailed images of objects in his head but seeing objects triggered no meaning for him. Another individual could recognize objects just fine but was face blind and could not recognize even his own face if a photo was shown to him. Another woman could not see objects once they started moving. She would see them in  a sort of strobe effect but could not perceive the actual motion. The takeaway from these case studies was that there seems to be so much visual information coming in from our eyes that the brain cannot process it all at once in the same part of the brain. Several different parts of the brain work together with specific specializations to help us quickly make sense of visual information.

I watched a video about suicide prevention for a class several years ago and a line from that stood out to me. A man that had survived a suicide attempt and then dedicated his life to help prevent suicide said that “the brain is an organ and it can be diseased just like any other organ.” It sounds obvious but that changed the way I see mental illness. Brain disorders are so confusing because it seems like we should be able to control it. We are usd to being able to control our thoughts and feelings for the most part. And losing that ability is scary.

It’s surprising to hear that we don’t know the purpose of the normal Huntingtin protein. I wonder what studies have been done that involve removing the gene for its expression. If it is unneeded, why not genetically modify the gametes of individuals with Huntington’s before fertilization occurs so their children won’t inherit the faulty gene and we could eliminate the disease. Some research involves gene editing in an adult diagnosed with the disease, but I’m more interested in modifying eggs or sperm to remove defective genes before they are passed on.“https://www.npr.org/sections/health-shots/2019/08/22/746321083/scientists-attempt-controversial-experiment-to-edit-dna-in-human-sperm-using-cri” This article introduces research going on about trying to get CRISPR into sperm cells. I guess this is difficult because the DNA is fully condensed in the sperm before fertilization. It’s also very controversial research because if successful, this power will be difficult to manage and will open the doors to designer babies. In my opinion, it would be so worth it. So many genetic diseases could be eradicated. Unethical people will behave unethically. We should do all we can to control the power, but we shouldn’t leave curable debilitating diseases uncured out of fear of people also using that power to be stupid. Just criminalize the stupid behavior and don’t make it legal to make designer babies out of preference. We already criminalize certain kinds of human embryo testing, we should just implement the same policies we have for that.

It’s overwhelming to read about the potential effects of traumatic brain injuries. I fell off a longboard a couple of years ago and hit my head pretty hard. I remember trying to stop to avoid hitting a little girl that walked out in front of me and then I remember laying face up in the grass. I have no memory of the fall or landing. I don’t know if I was unconscious for two seconds or ten. Since then I’ve sure had lots of dramatic life events. I wonder if my head injury affected the way I responded. Have I been more emotional? Have I been more anxious? Or are these things totally unrelated and coincidental? I don’t envy anyone in the field of psychology trying to determine the statistical significance of studies like this because it’s so hard to quantitatively measure moods and essentially impossible to control for all the variables involved. My brother suffered a concussion while wakeboarding and he never seemed to be the same afterward, but he also was dating someone and got married right at the same time. Marriage sure brings out a lot and changes a person. Is it possible to know if he would have changed in the same way without the head injury? 

I am so fascinated by habits. “The Power of Habit” was one of the most impactful books I’ve ever read. Instead of making new year’s resolutions, I have a little notebook with a long list of habits I hope to form or break. I review that list regularly. It is very exciting to notice myself habitually doing something on that list knowing how difficult that specific thing used to be for me at some point. Once it’s a habit, you don’t have to try, you don’t have to think, you just reap the rewards. So powerful. The neural pruning “Use it or Lose it” principle that was mentioned in context of drug abuse is a bittersweet concept. On one hand I am grateful for many of my childhood activities like extensive reading that clearly benefit me today and on the other hand I can see other ways that my time was spent as a child that has made my life much harder than it needs to be. I like to hope that even though my brain has been “mature” for a couple of years now as I am about to turn 27 years old, I still have the capability to change my brain for the better - rerouting bad habits and creating new good ones.

I loved the natural products article, especially the way it described herbal medicine starting to be regarded as old wives tales or superstition as compared to chemically synthesized medicines. We need to give credit to and put more research into plant and fungal chemicals and their medicinal properties. I mention fungus even though the article did not because fungi are fantastic chemists and they seem to be underrated. Plants have been studied and experimented with by humans for thousands of years but it’s only been recently that we’ve understood the nature of fungi and the way that their fruiting bodies are a very small part of their true form. I’ve learned from organic chemistry and microbiology that fungi can produce some extremely complex molecules and I’m sure there are many that have useful properties that we are not yet aware of. I’m really getting excited about this. The reverse pharmacology concept was interesting, if I understand correctly, with reverse pharmacology, the herbs are all on the market already based on traditional knowledge. While available on the market scientists can study the herb and figure out the active moiety and perhaps improve efficacy. This is opposed to finding a lead, researching and testing it before it is available to anyone. There are pros and cons to each but reverse pharmacology seems to have great value.

Curated Paper

Curated Paper 2

The brain has been studied for a long time in various fields, but still, there are many things we don’t know. We get information about the external environment by seeing, touching, tasting, smelling, and hearing things, and process them in the cerebrum to think, feel, and react to them. I am not a multitasker at all, but my brain is an amazing multitasker. The brain controls everything we do. It makes me move my body to do things, see what is around me, memorize things, plan the next move, talk to people around me, listen to them, and express emotions at the same time. Also, I can feel my stomach empty while I am doing all of these!

This complicated thing is unique to all different people in the world. For example, when someone asks you “What are you thinking?” and you answer “Nothing”, are you indeed thinking nothing, being zoned out? Or you are thinking too many things and too fast so that it is even hard for you to realize what you are thinking? I am the ‘zero-thinking’ person. And two of my previous roommates were the ‘million thinkers’. But of course, they both are thinking different things. One thinks about “why are we here, and where are we going”, and the other thinks about random things like “What can I do in a falling airplane?” Like this, brains work very differently in people. This is why I think it is hard to study one’s mind and how exactly the brain works. We can’t make a concrete statement since everyone’s psychological process is different. Also, I think our minds keep changing as we experience things.

Our mind and brain are connected but not the same. I feel like the mind can be established after you are born through experiences, but the brain is intrinsic. We can study the brain like the different types of lobes, and their functions. But it is hard to study the mind because it is all different depending on the experience one has had. And treatment for the mind requires people to talk and share thoughts, and get help to change some inappropriate thoughts, but treatment for the brain is like surgery or medications that solely rely on science.

I think the brain is the most interesting part of the body. It is interesting because of its possibility to do things and the fact that we don’t understand how exactly it works. Our brain can do abstract things such as imagining, memorizing, feeling, or even dreaming. Brains can create things that do not exist in our minds. I can create images of things that are not in front of me. Also, I’ve always been curious about what sleep is. We still don’t have a concrete reason why we sleep and how we dream. Dreaming is the mental activity where the brain creates images and stories during certain stages of sleep. We see, eat, run, feel happy or sad, or suffer in dreams. Even though we did not experience those things in real life, we can even remember those dreams and tell friends about dreams. Last but not least, we still don’t know how the brain processes the received information and orders the reaction.

Even though we still don’t fully understand the brain, many researchers are studying diseases related to the brain. Since the brain is a part of our body, if there is an imbalance, it can be sick or get a disease psychologically and physiologically. For example, the biological model of psychology explains depression as a low level of serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine. One interesting fact is that people back then did not know this. They found that medications for high blood pressure caused depression and observed that some lowered serotonin and others lowered norepinephrine. With that fact, researchers found that depression is related to low levels of those neurotransmitters and made antidepressants that are monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAO inhibitors). Some antidepressants (SSRIs) prevent the reabsorption of serotonin.

We use drugs that control the behavior of the neurons or neurotransmitters for treatment. However, not all the drugs are used for treatment. While some are used to treat mental disorders, other chemicals can ruin the behavior of our brains. Information signals in the nervous system are transmitted as both electrical and chemical signals. Some drugs interfere with those signals via neurotransmitters in a variety of ways.

A lot of drugs mimic natural neurotransmitters. But they don’t work as natural neurotransmitters do. Some activate neurons but they might send an abnormal message to the body or the brain. Some cause neurons to release large amounts of natural neurotransmitters and the brain or body can react abnormally. When I went to Vancouver, Canada, I first saw people on drugs. I have watched videos about drug addicts, but it was scary and shocking to see people on drugs. They were not functioning well. They could not even stand straight. I thought that they would not be able to eat or sleep which can cause another problem on their bodies.

Some drugs prevent the normal recycling of brain chemicals, interfering with transporters. This causes an imbalance of brain chemistry. Since those drugs are relatively new, we don’t know what the long-term effects of those drugs are, we should be aware of are known consequences of taking those medications and need to study more about how they interact with the body.

When the brain remains imbalanced for a prolonged period, it can lead to brain damage or diseases such as Alzheimer’s disease. One reason that causes Alzheimer’s disease is the accumulation of beta-amyloid plaques. The resulting beta-amyloid peptides aggregate and form plaques in the brain, disrupting neural communication. Amyloids are misfolded proteins that tend to aggregate, forming highly stable structures that are resistant to denaturation and refolding into their native forms. This stability makes it challenging to reverse the process which makes it hard to treat or prevent Alzheimer’s disease.

 Also, the brains of Alzheimer's patients shrink. I thought it was interesting that the size of the brain is indeed proportionally related to the capacity of the brain. Alzheimer's disease causes a gradual decline in memory, behavior, and thinking. Patients with Alzheimer's disease experience memory loss which is dementia. In my opinion, Alzheimer’s disease is a sad disease. The person is alive, but people around can see that they are progressively losing their loved ones.

There is an album called Everywhere at the End of Time by The Caretakers. It is about the progression of memory loss of Alzheimer's disease or dementia. It is a 6-hour and 30-minute-long album with 6 stages, but it would be great for you to listen to understand what memory loss looks or feels like. I recommend you listen to it if you have enough time. You don’t have to focus on the music. However, if you don’t pay attention, you will feel that something is going wrong at some point. And then at the end of the album, you would think ‘What is this noise?’. I think that is what memory loss sounds like and what people who suffer Alzheimer's disease are going through.

The Interconnectedness of Medication, Brain Health, and Pathogenicity: An Ayurvedic Perspective-Shane Best

In today’s world, the interplay between medications, brain health, and pathogenicity is more complex than ever before. The advancement of modern medicine has brought about miraculous treatments and remedies, allowing us to manage symptoms, cure diseases, and prolong life. However, as with any powerful tool, these developments also carry unintended consequences, such as dependency, side effects, and over-medication. In addition, the brain, being one of the most intricate and vital organs, is often the focal point of both healing and harm. Whether it is responding to medications or fighting off infections, the brain’s capacity for resilience and vulnerability shapes much of human health. Pathogenicity—the ability of microorganisms to cause disease—further complicates these dynamics, adding another layer of complexity to the health challenges we face. By integrating Ayurvedic principles, we can gain a more holistic understanding of how these three factors—medications, brain health, and pathogenicity—are interwoven, and how Ayurveda offers a framework for achieving balance and healing across physical, mental, and spiritual dimensions.

The Power and Pitfalls of Medication

Medications are a cornerstone of modern healthcare, with their ability to relieve pain, manage chronic conditions, and treat infections being indispensable. Whether it's the daily regimen of antihypertensive drugs or the quick-acting relief of painkillers, medications offer a powerful tool to restore health and function. However, this power comes with a dark side, particularly when it comes to substances with addictive potential. Painkillers, especially opioids, have become notorious for their ability to create dependence. What begins as an effective treatment for pain can spiral into addiction, creating a destructive cycle that is hard to break. Similarly, medications for mental health conditions, such as antidepressants and benzodiazepines, can provide life-saving relief but also come with the risk of dependence, side effects, or mismanagement.

In Ayurveda, the principle of balance is paramount, and medications are seen as tools to restore harmony within the body. While Western medicine often targets specific symptoms or imbalances, Ayurveda encourages a broader approach that considers the whole person—body, mind, and spirit. Ayurvedic remedies, which may include herbs, oils, and dietary adjustments, aim to address the root cause of illness by restoring balance to the three doshas (Vata, Pitta, and Kapha). In this context, medications, while useful, are not always the ultimate solution. Ayurveda emphasizes the importance of lifestyle modifications, mindfulness, and holistic approaches to health that seek to address the underlying imbalances in the body, rather than simply managing symptoms.

Brain Health: The Foundation of Well-Being

The brain plays a central role in regulating all bodily functions, and its health is directly tied to overall well-being. Concussions, traumatic brain injuries, and long-term neurodegenerative diseases like Alzheimer's and Parkinson’s highlight the devastating effects of impaired brain function. Brain injuries can lead to cognitive decline, emotional disturbances, and physical disabilities. Similarly, the brain’s vulnerability to pathogens, such as viruses or bacteria, can result in conditions like meningitis or encephalitis, which pose significant risks to both mental and physical health.

From an Ayurvedic perspective, the brain is seen as an important organ connected to the mind and the nervous system, which are governed by the Vata dosha, responsible for movement, communication, and cognition. When the Vata dosha is imbalanced—either through physical injury, mental stress, or environmental factors—the result can be a range of neurological and psychological disorders. These may include memory loss, anxiety, depression, and even physical symptoms like insomnia or tremors.

For instance, brain injuries, such as concussions, often lead to disruptions in the Vata dosha, which may manifest as physical symptoms like headaches or dizziness, or mental symptoms such as anxiety and mood swings. If left unaddressed, the imbalance can lead to chronic conditions like CTE or Alzheimer's, diseases that involve a gradual deterioration of brain function. Ayurveda offers approaches like meditation, herbal treatments, and therapies like Panchakarma to help balance Vata, calm the mind, and promote healing after brain injuries. By restoring balance to the doshas, Ayurveda aims to prevent the long-term consequences of brain injuries and foster recovery.

Pathogenicity: The Role of Microorganisms in Health and Disease

Pathogenicity, the ability of microorganisms to cause disease, adds another layer of complexity to the interplay between medications and brain health. Infections of the brain, such as meningitis or encephalitis, highlight how pathogens can disrupt normal brain function, often with severe consequences. Pathogens, including bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites, have evolved strategies to evade the body’s immune defenses, making it challenging to combat infections effectively. The rise of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) further complicates this picture, as pathogens evolve to resist the drugs designed to neutralize them.

In Ayurveda, the concept of imbalance extends beyond physical health to include the body's defense mechanisms. The immune system, or "Ojas" in Ayurveda, is central to protecting the body from harmful pathogens. When Ojas is strong and balanced, the body is better equipped to resist disease. However, factors like stress, poor diet, and environmental toxins can deplete Ojas, leaving the body more vulnerable to infections. Ayurvedic treatments focus on strengthening Ojas through nutrition, herbs, and lifestyle adjustments to restore the body's natural defenses.

Moreover, Ayurveda recognizes the interconnectedness between mind and body. Chronic infections or the stress of dealing with a long-term illness can disrupt mental well-being, leading to conditions like anxiety, depression, or chronic fatigue. This is particularly relevant in the context of neurological infections, where pathogens may directly or indirectly affect the brain. The Ayurvedic approach to treating infections emphasizes both the physical and mental aspects of recovery, ensuring that the patient’s overall well-being is addressed.

The Interplay Between Medication, Brain Health, and Pathogenicity

When examining the relationship between medication, brain health, and pathogenicity, it becomes clear that these factors are deeply intertwined. Medications, while crucial for managing infections, controlling chronic conditions, and relieving pain, can have significant side effects, particularly when they interact with the brain. The use of opioids or benzodiazepines, for example, can lead to both physical and psychological dependence, complicating recovery and treatment plans. These substances may temporarily relieve symptoms, but they also carry the risk of reinforcing imbalances in the body’s natural processes.

Similarly, infections that affect the brain, whether they are caused by viruses, bacteria, or other pathogens, can disrupt both cognitive and emotional health. Pathogens that invade the central nervous system (CNS) can cause inflammation, which may lead to long-term cognitive decline, emotional disturbances, and other neurological symptoms. The medications used to treat these infections, particularly antibiotics and antivirals, can sometimes lead to unintended consequences, such as disrupting the microbiome or triggering other side effects that impact brain function.

Ayurveda provides a holistic framework for addressing these interconnected issues. Instead of solely focusing on pharmaceutical treatments, Ayurvedic medicine encourages an integrated approach to health. This includes dietary adjustments, herbal remedies, stress reduction techniques like yoga and meditation, and therapies designed to restore balance to the doshas. By addressing both the physical and mental aspects of health, Ayurveda promotes healing in a way that modern medicine sometimes overlooks. For example, after a concussion or neurological infection, Ayurveda may focus on calming the Vata dosha, boosting Ojas, and supporting the immune system, which could help the body better respond to both pathogens and the medications used to treat them.

The Path Forward: Integration of Modern Medicine and Ayurveda

The future of healthcare lies in integrating the best aspects of modern medicine with the time-tested wisdom of traditional healing practices like Ayurveda. By acknowledging the strengths and limitations of both, healthcare providers can offer a more comprehensive approach to treatment. Medications, while powerful tools, should be used with mindfulness and in conjunction with lifestyle modifications that address the root causes of illness. Ayurveda’s emphasis on balance, prevention, and holistic healing offers valuable insights into how we can manage medications, support brain health, and combat pathogenic threats while minimizing harm.

In conclusion, the relationship between medications, brain health, and pathogenicity is complex and multifaceted. While modern medicine provides critical interventions, the potential for dependency, side effects, and the rise of resistant pathogens reminds us of the need for a more holistic approach to health. Ayurveda’s focus on balance and harmony offers a valuable complement to modern treatments, helping individuals navigate the challenges of illness, medication, and recovery. By embracing both the power of science and the wisdom of tradition, we can cultivate a more holistic, sustainable approach to health that nurtures both the body and mind.

Paper 2

 The brain is a truly extraordinary organ, one that makes up all of our consciousness, governs our actions, and creates our perceptions of the world. Despite the brain being so small, it is responsible for everything that makes us, well us. Things like our thoughts, our emotions, our decisions, and even our relationships are all from the brain. Yet, despite its central role, it can be a fragile thing, and the effects of imbalances, whether caused by injury, diseases, or drug use, can dramatically alter the course of a person’s life. My personal relationship to both brain related injuries, both physical and mental, have led me down a path of discovery of how imbalances in the brain can also have a large effect on others as well.

Growing up I was a three sport athlete in all collision sports. I always thought they were a joke. Every year we had to spend an hour or so doing concussion protocol testing and it always seemed to be a waste of time. I had one concussion in my life and it wasn’t that big a deal. Some freshman was messing around and was swinging around a defensive lacrosse stick and it hit me in the back of the head and made me stumble. I experienced a slight mood swing while I tried to chase him down for hitting me until my coach got to him before I did. The concussion then just became an excuse for me to get out of school.

I guess I finally realized that they were a serious issue when one day I accidentally made a kid go blind in one eye for a while because his brain had swelled up. The freshman had just gotten off of concussion protocol and was back at practice. He was goofing off with his friends on the sidelines while the coach was talking so I came up behind them and hit their helmets yelling at them to pay attention. I didn’t know that he had just gotten a concussion, because if I did, I wouldn't have done it. But, sure enough, that kid went blind in one of his eyes because of the hit to the helmet and had to get rushed to the hospital.

This event really impacted me, especially when I started coaching wrestling. As a coach, the responsibility for the safety and well-being of my young athletes became even more important. I have seen how athletes dismiss concussion protocols as a stupid protocol that is a waste of time, but that mindset can have life-altering consequences. The brain, even though it is a powerful original, requires care, and it's important that we as a society, and in our sporting communities, normalize taking proper care and protocols. following concussion protocols shouldn’t be just a formality; it's a matter of protecting something that essentially makes us who we are.

Concussions are not the only way that the brain can get jumbled up. For me, the issue of brain imbalances hits very close to home due to my family's history with schizophrenia. This psychotic disorder causes hallucinations, delusions, and disorganized thinking. It has also taken the lives of a couple of my family members. The more I learned about the illness, the more I found out how complexly it’s connected to imbalances in the brain, especially imbalances in the neurotransmitters called dopamine, which plays an important role in mood regulation and decision-making .

Schizophrenia is caused by a bunch of different factors like genetic and environmental factors, but the main catalyst for the disease is actually dopamine imbalances. Larger amounts of dopamine in certain parts of the brain cause delusions and hallucinations while too little dopamine in others can result in lack of motivation and inability to feel pleasure. 

One of the worst problems that is hurting modern society is drug addiction. Having grown up in Oregon, which was one of the first states to legalize weed, it was easy to see the effect that drugs took on people around me. Drugs are mostly associated with ways of escaping from the pain being experienced in life or relaxing and having fun.. In reality, drugs throw the brain's chemicals into an imbalance in such a manner that may lead to drug addiction, mental health issues, and long-term damage to the user.

One example of how drugs cause imbalances: substances such as opioids end up flooding the brain with dopamine, creating a feeling of temporary euphoria, which goes hand in hand with a harsh crash that will leave the person clinically depressed and wanting for more. With stimulants, it gives energy for a short time, but the after effects include anxiety and paranoia, plus severe health consequences in the long run. The most tragic part is that drug addiction doesn't only destroy an individual; it destroys families and communities. Children grow up without parents, relationships get shattered, and the sense of safety and security within the community crumbles.

I have literally watched friends that were once full of promise get completely consumed by it. Friends who had the potential to be great athletes end up getting "perma-baked" and simply waste away. I've watched people's mental and physical deterioration, their lives completely spiraling out of control. The effects that it does to mental health are terrible: drugs take over the brains of users, rewarding them for taking the drug by creating long-term changes in mood, perception, and behavior. These changes can make recovery difficult and, in many cases, impossible.

Drug abuse and mental health disorders are not solely personal issues, but problems of society. The costs to society permeate throughout: torn families from drugs, stigmatized or misunderstood mental health disorders, and entire communities falling into addiction and violence. These issues demand much more than punitive responses; they call for a compassionate, multifaceted approach.

As a society, we need to provide education, access to mental health, and resources for addictive or mentally ill behavior. I think that the involvement of psychology could be a huge asset to biologists in the pursuit of how best to help people caught in these behaviors because what we have now isn’t working too great. Don’t get me wrong, there has been a ton done already that has been proven to help, i am just saying we could do so much more.

There are several stories of people who have come out of an addiction problem, stories of those who find their way back from the edge. It is such stories that give hope, reminding us that recovery is possible, provided we extend the support and understanding necessary. This means making a commitment to using our skills and knowledge to help others, to not judge but rather emphasize empathy, and also to be aware that imbalances of the brain-whatever the cause of an injury, an illness, or drugs-are not anybody's fault, yet again a result of fragile, intrusive systems at work inside the brain. 

The brain is central to who we are. It governs our thoughts, actions, and feelings; if it becomes imbalanced, the effect can be disastrous. Concussions, other mental disorders, and drug addiction all involve disruption in normal chemistry, with suffering and loss the result. Understanding, compassion, and a commitment to protecting and healing the brain hold the key to mitigating the suffering of those afflicted. We need to follow concussion protocols, seek better treatments for our mental health issues, and find the root of addictions if we want, slowly, to be able to balance not only within ourselves but also in our families, communities, and overall society. The brain is just too important to neglect, and every step toward ensuring its health should be taken, not just for us but also for generations to come.

Curated Paper 2- Ellie Herd

Human genetics is a field that is recently becoming more well understood, and is gradually growing over the years. The human genome project was finished in 2003, and since then genetic studies have only grown more. But understanding brings more questions and concerns. What happens when we develop more technology to alter the genome? Who will have access to that information and what will they be able to do with it? What challenges will genetically-modified humans face, and how will society change?

Genetic counseling is a small area of science that is only steadily advancing. The profession has seen consistent growth for the past decade. I am hoping to become a genetic counselor once I complete graduate school, because it is such an interesting field of science that can help and educate so many people. There are many who would choose to live not knowing about their genetics, but I find it helpful to be able to understand exactly who and what I am. I have recently taken a 23andme genetics test, and found a lot of information. While it may not be as in-depth as I would have hoped, it is still a very interesting experience to understand more about your whole being. I hope in the future I can help others to understand themselves as well as their loved ones more.

Parkinson's disease runs in my family. My grandma and my great-grandma on my dad's side, and my great-grandma on my mom's side all suffered from Parkinsons. The cause is mostly due to genetics and exposure to chemicals, so there is a high chance I might develop the disease later in life. Onset usually occurs at around 60 years of age, so I’ll have some time before I start experiencing symptoms. 

Autism is a developmental disorder that is becoming increasingly more common. The apparent rise of autism might be due to more access to healthcare, and more awareness overall. The disorder is a spectrum that affects learning, social interaction, communication, and behavior. The cause is neurological, affects the central nervous system, and may be due to genetics. Autism, while it can be difficult for many with the disorder, is becoming more well-understood and individuals are able to live normal lives. 

Borderline personality disorder is another neurological disorder that is becoming more well-understood. However, BPD is a personality disorder that is mostly caused by genetics and can be linked to childhood trauma and abuse. The disorder is characterized by unstable moods, relationships, and behavior. I have had close relationships with individuals with BPD, and have observed this instability of behavior firsthand. The individuals that I know with BPD have been some of the most prevalent people in my life, and are very important to me. Treatment for BPD can be found through therapy, where trauma and brain functions can be talked through and understood. 

Many of these neurological disorders have unknown causes, but can mostly be related to genetics. Some, like Huntington’s disease, are more well-understood than others. While others, such as MS, have unknown causes and variable symptoms and levels of complications. Because the brain is so complicated it can be difficult to understand how these diseases come about, and how to treat them. Even just one small defect can have detrimental effects on an individual. The brain is so complicated and specialized that these small genetic abnormalities can cause massive imbalances in the brain. 

Neurotransmitters are the chemical messengers that are the cause of most functions in the body, including movement, emotion, memory, pleasure, and pain. Because of the broad scope of these neurotransmitters, any small change or imbalance can cause so many disorders. For example, a commonly known neurotransmitter is dopamine. Dopamine plays a role in reward and motivation, as well as movement and mental health. Overproduction of dopamine can result in impulsiveness and aggression, while an underproduction can cause depression, mood swings, and fatigue. 

I think neurotransmitters are a great example of how the body relies on balance to keep itself functioning. It is extremely common for certain neurotransmitters to be thrown out of balance, and it can be manifested in various ways. Supplements and medications are easy ways to fight the imbalances, but may also have their negative effects. Antidepressants are used to treat the underproduction of serotonin, dopamine, and norepinephrine by blocking their reuptake back into their synapse. They may cause weight loss, emotional numbness, or a reduction in positive feelings overall. 

The story of Phineas Gage is one that I think about occasionally. The story is so interesting, and it was very educational for neuroscience at the time. Phineas Gage was a railway worker who had a tamping rod driven straight through his head. While it should have killed him, Gage was able to live for another 12 years before dying. The tamping rod was driven through his left frontal lobe and missed all major blood vessels that would have otherwise led to death. Gage was able to help many scientists learn more about the brain when phrenology was the leading science of the time. 

Phineas Gage experienced many personality changes following the accident. Before his injury, Gage was a capable foreman with calm and mild-mannered behaviors. He became more aggressive, unreliable, impulsive, and rude once the tamping rod destroyed many brain functions. The frontal lobe is crucial for personality and emotional functions, which is why Gage’s demeanor was altered. His motor functions as well as memory were left intact, however, and Gage is known as a neuroscience legend. 

Because of Phineas Gage, Traumatic Brain Injuries are more well-understood today. TBIs are common in those who have experienced trauma, especially falls, crashes, gunshot wounds, and blunt force. Individuals with TBIs can experience various symptoms, but personality and mood disorders are the most common. The complicated nature of the brain means that two similar injuries can have vastly different effects. Like Phineas Gage, personality changes are very common in TBIs, mostly similar to Gage’s. Negative behaviors such as aggression, paranoia, and instability.

Neurological disorders are the leading cause of disability worldwide. They can affect families, the economy, and healthcare systems. Education is also affected, as those with cognitive disabilities require specialized education. Common neurological disorders like ADHD, ADD, and autism can all affect how an individual learns and focuses. These disorders can have large effects on the individual, alienating them from their peers and causing disruptions in learning. Understanding how these disorders work can help teachers know how to teach better, and awareness can lead to better circumstances overall.

Humans are growing steadily more and more dependent on technology. Our biggest crutch is our phones, and we have already become addicted to them. Phone addiction can mimic the issues that come with drug addictions, and can in turn disrupt normal brain functions. Phones activate the pleasure center of the brain, which is also activated by addicting drugs like cocaine. Dopamine is the neurotransmitter responsible for feelings of pleasure, motivation, and satisfaction. It is used as a survival instinct and is responsible for the reward-seeking behavior that is part of surviving. Phones are programmed to specifically target the release of this reward-seeking dopamine. Every time we get a notification, we check our phones and dopamine is released. The average person checks their smartphone 144 times a day. Imagine how much dopamine is being released throughout the day when our devices are checked that often. Phone addiction can have adverse effects on other parts of the individual’s life. They may lose interest in other rewarding activities, and attention spans can decrease. 

Young adults are more likely to use substances than any other age group. This can be due to social pressures, like wanting to fit in with a crowd. Drugs can also have soothing capabilities and can be an easy way to just feel good. As an example, alcohol is a drug that can make you feel relaxed, euphoric, excited, and impaired. The legal drinking age across the world is generally around 18 years. This can mean that a lot more young people consume alcohol at this time in their lives, and an addiction can stem from there. This age is so crucial in the trajectory of the rest of a person's life and can be the root of serious problems and addiction. The gateway drug theory shows how habits can form and lead to the introduction of more intense drugs. While someone could start with just a cigarette, they may form habits that lead to cocaine or heroin use later in life. 

The most commonly used drug worldwide is caffeine. While at first it doesn’t seem like caffeine should be considered a drug, once you really think about it it makes sense. Caffeine is a stimulant, and helps the user feel more awake and focused. Caffeine is found in most coffee and tea beverages, and is also used in energy drinks, chocolate, soda, and some medications. Addiction is possible, and many can become reliant on the drug for normal brain function. Withdrawal symptoms include headache, irritability, and fatigue. I consume a lot of caffeine daily, and have noticed when I don’t consume coffee in the morning I usually feel more tired and experience headaches later in the day. 

The most commonly used illicit drug is marijuana. Its calming effects make it popular among young adults, and medical marijuana is used to treat many diseases. Short-term effects of the drug include impaired thinking, memory, and motor ability. It can also cause anxiety, hunger, dry-mouth, restlessness, and paranoia. The legality of marijuana varies across all states in the US. Most allow for medical marijuana use, and 24 have completely legalized the drug. Some states, such as Idaho, Wyoming, and Nebraska, are fully illegal.

 

Brenna Fangupo Curated Paper 2: Brain, Drugs and Pathogenicity

Brenna Fangupo

4500 Biology of Disease

Jonathan Karpel

11/15/2024

Curated Paper 2: Brain, Drugs and Pathogenicity

    When learning about the brain, it’s understood that it is very complex. It is one of the most important organs in the human body and the reason for this being is because this is how the human body functions. We are able to function because of the signals that are coming to, and from the brain. There are many things about the brain and how it functions is still yet to be fully discovered. The changes that happen within the brain and the injuries that can occur to the brain can have a huge effect. on the way in which our body functions and how we function on a daily basis. 

     The brain is made up of over 100 billion nerve cells and these cells are able to communicate with one another through synapses. There is a synapse between each cell and these have specialized parts. The specialized parts are the cortex, the brainstem, the basal ganglia, and the cerebellum which all of these different parts that make up the brain control the different parts and functions of the body.  There are lobes within the brain as well, which is correlated with the functions of our body. The way in which the brain functions and how it can be affected, depends on what occurs there can be physical injury to the brain. Mental disorders can play into how the brain functions and there are also drugs that can affect how the brain functions.

    The wrinkles of  the brain are the cerebrum. This is the major portion of the brain. With a larger surface area, there will be more neurons. This indicates that an individual with a brain that has more wrinkles will have more neurons, and this makes them more intelligent than other individuals. In the YouTube video, we learn about how the cerebrum is divided into four lobes. The first one I learned about was the frontal lobe. The function of the frontal lobe is in which it controls problem-solving and takes care of the intellectual activities and the example that they used in the video was solving a math problem. This indicates that the frontal lobe was actively involved because I was trying to solve the problem. It was also fascinating to learn that our frontal lobe controls the attention span of an individual, how we make judgment on situations, how we behave and our muscle movement functions through the frontal lobe.

    The other lobe that it describes is the parietal lobe and its function is to sense pain and touch. It also gives us the ability to read and understand statements. The Temporal lobe is in charge of the visual and auditory memory and from the video, it explains what we see and hear is stored in the Temporal lobe as memories. The final lobe that the video describes is the occipital lobe and what this lobe does is it helps us recognize colors, words and the motion of things. I then learn about the cerebellum and how important it is to the brain. This part of the brain controls certain functions of the body that we as humans depend on, and this is things like posture, balance, and how our body moves in the correct way there were many examples brought up, but the one that stood out to me was that the cerebellum is the reason why we can run stand on one leg and why we can keep posture when standing. 

    The video had mentioned how we handle our emotions and I had never really thought of what is causing me to be sad or happy. People tend to think how we feel is because of our heart, but in reality it is our brain allowing us to express our emotions and feel emotions. There are many functions that we are capable of doing because of the brain. The brain is not given enough credit for all that it does and it is capable of supporting everything in which our body does. Knowing that the brain is a keystone in which we are able to function. When  something happens to the brain that causes injury or change. They way in which one functions can change dramatically.

    The psychology of the brain and how it influences our behavior shows in the different sections and lobes of the brain. Each brain has a different function that affects our mental state and how we react to different scenarios. This includes how we deal with brain diseases, such as neurological disorders, storage disorders, personality and mood disorders, developmental, and prion diseases can all play a part in how an individual functions. One of the disorders that I want to touch base on is developmental and these are due to genetics and how we develop in the womb. The brain diseases from this are autism and spectrum disorders that are due to the development in your mothers womb. I wanted to give attention to the brain disease in which I have relatives who suffer from both autism and spectrum disorders. The development of a human being is already complicated and trying to understand how brain disease came about is even more difficult to understand because in depth research needs to be done. 

    When the brain is not functioning how it is supposed to, the role of ayurveda will be disrupted. With ayurveda being the mind, body and spirit are one and if the brain is affected, both our mind and body will not be able to function correctly. The reason for this being is because our brain is so important that it controls how our mind thinks. It controls how our body functions. If our body is not able to send out the signals to move then we will not be able to move hence why our brain allows us to practice ayurveda. 

    This made me think of my grandmother who has Alzheimer’s, and how a stroke within her brain caused her to have the disease of dementia. It just made me think how important it is to be healthy to keep our brains away from injury so that we will be able to function properly.  With my grandmother, the part of her brain that was affected, the most was memory and recognition of others. As a child I remember crying because she didn't recognize me or others around her. There were also many times where she'd be confused because of how her brain was functioning. Our brains are important and keeping them in the condition they are supposed to be in will keep us away from diseases. This means doing all that we can to avoid harm to our brains. 

The brain and how it functions is affected when we partake in any kind of drugs. There are two types of drugs: legal and illicit drugs. The legal drugs are prescribed or bought over the counter. These types of drugs include pain relievers, allergy medicine, and many more. The illicit drugs are the illegal and forbidden drugs, such as cocaine, meth, and marijuana. Understanding that both types of drugs can affect the brain in some type of way makes us question if drugs benefit us or hurt us in the long run. 

With legal drugs being pain relievers, allergy medications, cold and flu medications and other over the counter medications as well as prescribed medications help us function to feel better. I have seen relatives who are prescribed pain relievers but over time their bodies start to acclimate to the prescribed drug making their body need a higher dosage. This shows how the brain becomes familiar with the drugs that we are using where the chemistry of the brain is changing in some way. The question is “what are drugs doing to us when we use them?” The answer is that the pathways in our brains where the neurotransmitters that are processing what is being sent and received are being tampered with when certain drugs are taken. Drugs can activate neurons, where the neurons release large amounts of natural neurotransmitters and can also block pathways or help the pathways work better.

Drugs affect the brain whether they are illicit drugs or legal. The balance of our brain of how we think, feel, and behave are all affected when we take drugs. How they get to the brain is first, through our bloodstreams. In the youtube video “How do drugs affect the brain?” It explains that when drugs are administered orally, it takes the longest to reach our brains because it has to be absorbed by our digestive system first before it can take effect. It also shows how inhaling and injecting a drug both get into the bloodstream much faster where it then reaches the brain. Many drugs must have a certain chemical composition that allows passage into the brain. Once in the brain, they begin to alter or mess with the natural functioning of the brain. 

The drugs target neurons and synapses, and when these are functioning normally they help in regulating our emotions, behaviors, and how we perceive and understand things. When drugs are present, they are able to inhibit or excite these neurotransmitters. Where there are dramatic decreases in the amount of neurotransmitters or abnormal large amounts of neurotransmitters being released into the brain. The drug and how effective it can be relies solely on the way it can manipulate the synaptic transmissions. One example given in the video is how pain relievers are able to reduce the pain perception in which the brain is telling us something hurts, but the drug we take reduces or inhibits the neurotransmitters to make it seem like the pain is no longer there. 

    From this example, I realized how when I take pain relievers I tend to not feel the pain anymore, but when the pain reliever wears off the area that was in pain hurts more. From this, we see how drugs are able to inhibit our neurotransmitters to where it is able to change how our brains feel, think, and behave. Drugs have powerful impacts and because they have an effect on our brains chemistry, it is understood that some need to have restrictions and be controlled by the law. The illicit drugs that many administer can permanently damage how our brains function and the neural networks. The repeated use of a drug can ultimately rewire our brains causing how we think, the ability to learn and our memory will be affected when using specific drugs. 

    I remember a family friend who became addicted to an illicit drug and would administer the drug repeatedly on a day to day basis. When my family members and I would encounter the person, they behaved differently from before and would often avoid eye contact. Their memory of the past was different and they would make up stories or tell them differently from how we all remembered it. Most of the time it seemed that they were in their own world where they were drifting from reality. This shows how drugs can affect one's mind and their relationships with others because after this person changed from drug abuse, our relationship with this family friend became distant because they grew aggressive and paranoid not only around us but anyone in general. The psychological side of their brain led to addiction where they want more and more causing change in their behavior. 

    Drugs, both good and bad, need to be further researched. The ones we often use are the ones that have been studied thoroughly to ensure that they are effective for our  medicines to improve our health. If we can study all drugs and understand how they affect our mind's balance and our body, we can then further our medical stance to improve the quality of medicine to where it will be more effective than before. 

    Ayurveda is a topic that we have touched base with since the beginning of the semester. It is the balance of our mind, body, and spirit. When drugs are in use, the practice of ayurveda is disrupted because our minds and bodies are affected, and if we touch base with the spiritual side of things it causes our minds to go away from the teachings in which we learned because our minds are not sober, we are most likely to fall into temptation. Drugs can benefit our health but they can also end up harming us if we don’t administer them correctly. This is why it is important for us to gain knowledge on all drugs in which they can or should not be used. 

Pathogenicity is the measure, where we see microbes being the cause of a disease in a certain host. Pathogens, and their ability to cause a disease depends on a lot of different factors, and this also depends on the host's ability to fight against that pathogen. There are plant diseases where pathogens can take entire crops out. And the microbes we see in our gut that can cause disease in the human body. There are many different results, but we see that the pathogens within our body can be long-term, or even have chronic effects where we could potentially die.

    There are some pathogens that are able to insert their own genetic material into our own DNA, and this can cause mutations in our DNA that can change it, and it will never be able to reverse. If we think about this and understand it, we see how pathogens can add or even affect our genetics over time. This just goes to show that our genome has been affected, and changed due to pathogens. “Pathogens are anything that can cause diseases” (Karpel, 2020). Types of pathogens vary; this can include bacteria, fungi, virus, and proteins. Hosts also vary and the pathogens can have different effects on the hosts. 

Pathogens can change a host's behavior and how they act and think could all be affected due to the pathogen. Whether it is short term or long term depends on their purpose and the type of pathogen it is. Pathogens can greatly affect our bodies mentally and physically and the effect can be great or even have little effect but one thing's for sure pathogens have an effect no matter how big or small they are. The psychological part of the brain shows how pathogens are able to influence us and change the way we react and perceive pathogens.

    Our body, mind and spirit will not function properly with any pathogen present. Pathogens are bacterias, fungi, viruses and other things that cause disease in a host. For the host we humans can be that host and depending on the pathogen we have anything could have to where our organs are shutting down. Our tissues are each eating  itself, and how we think, remember, and make judgment on things could all be affected because pathogens are present. This shows how ayurveda will not be able to act as it usually does because a  calamity has taken place within the host. 

The brain is the main thing being affected here where drugs and pathogens are influencing the brain causing behavior, emotions, and the way we think to change. If we did not have a brain these things would not affect us like they do today. With drugs we are able to feel things or not feel things because of the transmitters in our brain. Pathogens are able to rewire the behavior of their host because of their brain. All this is possible because there is a brain present. Our brain has the ability to do things beyond our control and when we think all is in control it's not because we don’t have ownership because our brains run us, not the other way around. 

Isaac Thomson - Curated Paper 2

As a biology student, I’ve come to appreciate the intricate connections between the body’s internal systems and how disruptions—whether caused by brain injuries or drug use—can reverberate beyond the individual to affect society. These issues, though biologically grounded, extend into ethical, psychological, and societal realms, showcasing the need for holistic solutions that integrate scientific understanding with societal awareness.

Brain injuries, such as the concussions I’ve experienced, serve as a stark reminder of the fragility and complexity of the brain. These injuries disrupt the body’s delicate equilibrium, leading to systemic consequences. For instance, after my injuries, I experienced fatigue, mood swings, and difficulty concentrating. These challenges underscored the brain’s role as the body’s regulatory hub. Even minor damage to its structure can set off cascading effects, impacting emotional regulation, physical health, and cognitive abilities. Similarly, drug use, especially of stimulants like cocaine or prescription medications such as Adderall, can disturb the brain’s neurotransmitter balance. The immediate euphoria these substances create often leads to a dangerous cycle of dependency, as the body adapts to their presence and requires increasing amounts to maintain normal functioning.

The concept of homeostasis ties these issues together. Brain injuries often lead to imbalances that ripple through the body’s interconnected systems. For example, disruptions to areas like the brainstem or hypothalamus can affect heart rate, hormonal regulation, and emotional stability. Drug use similarly hijacks the body’s regulatory systems, particularly the brain’s reward pathway. Addiction arises when the brain recalibrates itself to depend on the drug, creating a new, unstable "normal." This shared biological theme demonstrates how the body strives to maintain balance, even in adverse conditions, and highlights the long-term consequences of these disruptions on health and well-being.

What makes these biological disruptions even more complex is how they spill into the social realm. After my concussions, I noticed how the cognitive and emotional challenges I faced affected my ability to engage fully in academic and social life. For example, I struggled to keep up with the demands of my coursework and felt isolated at times because I couldn’t process information as quickly as I used to. Similarly, drug use, particularly among college students, often stems from societal pressures to perform. Many students misuse stimulants in the hope of enhancing academic performance without considering the potential toll on their physical and mental health. It’s easy to see why—college can feel like a constant race against the clock, with deadlines and exams piling up. Students often feel like they need to maximize every waking moment, even if it means turning to artificial enhancers like drugs. Unfortunately, the consequences can be long-lasting, affecting the user and their relationships, families, and communities.

As someone aspiring to be an eye doctor, I’ve also reflected on how brain injuries can directly impact vision. The brain and eyes are deeply interconnected, with areas like the occipital lobe and optic nerves playing essential roles in processing visual information. After my concussions, I noticed occasional difficulties with focus and light sensitivity—symptoms often linked to post-traumatic vision syndrome. Many individuals with traumatic brain injuries experience more severe visual disturbances, including double vision, blurry sight, and difficulty tracking moving objects. These disruptions affect day-to-day functioning and underscore how much we rely on visual perception to connect with and interpret the world around us. Understanding these connections reinforces my desire to specialize in eye health and help patients navigate these challenges, bridging the gap between neurological and visual care.

The societal implications of drug misuse and brain injuries extend far beyond the individual. Drug addiction contributes to an increase in crime rates, burdens public health systems, and diminishes workforce productivity. Similarly, untreated brain injuries can limit a person’s ability to participate fully in society, whether through physical disabilities or cognitive impairments. These shared ripple effects underscore the interconnectedness of personal health and societal well-being, highlighting the need for public health initiatives that tackle these issues at their roots.

One of the most striking similarities between brain injuries and drug use is their impact on personality and behavior. Following my concussions, I experienced shifts in emotional regulation and irritability, which sometimes strained my relationships. I remember feeling frustrated at how little control I had over my moods, which often led to misunderstandings with friends and family. On a broader scale, individuals with traumatic brain injuries often face similar challenges, leading to social isolation or difficulty reintegrating into their communities. Drug use also alters behavior, often reinforcing negative cycles of anxiety, depression, and poor decision-making. In both cases, these changes highlight the intricate interplay between biology and identity, raising questions about how external factors shape who we are and how we interact with the world.

The ethical considerations surrounding these issues add another layer of complexity. Advances in brain injury treatments, such as stem cell therapy and neuroplasticity-driven rehabilitation, offer exciting possibilities but also challenge us to navigate the moral implications of altering brain function. Similarly, rethinking drug policies to focus on rehabilitation and public health instead of punitive measures demands careful ethical reflection. For instance, it’s worth asking why some substances are criminalized while others, like alcohol, are widely accepted. Alcohol, though legal, causes significant harm both biologically and socially, yet it enjoys cultural normalization. This contrast challenges us to think critically about the societal narratives we accept and how they shape public policy.

Mental health emerges as a critical thread tying these topics together. Individuals recovering from brain injuries often grapple with anxiety, depression, or post-traumatic stress, just as those battling drug addiction face similar struggles. In both cases, the stigma surrounding these challenges can prevent people from seeking the help they need, perpetuating cycles of harm. Addressing these issues requires a shift in perspective, one that normalizes seeking support and prioritizes holistic approaches to health. By recognizing mental health as a crucial component of recovery, society can better support individuals in their journeys toward healing.

Education is another vital piece of the puzzle. Reflecting on my experiences with concussions, I realize how much I didn’t understand about brain injuries until I went through them myself. Similarly, many people experimenting with drugs may not fully grasp how substances affect their brains and bodies. Building awareness is key. For example, health education programs in schools could include more detailed discussions about brain injuries and addiction. Programs like these would give students the tools to make informed choices about their health, potentially preventing problems before they arise.

At the same time, systemic changes are essential. Both brain injuries and drug use place significant strain on healthcare systems and communities. Brain injuries often require long-term rehabilitation, which can be resource-intensive and inaccessible for many. Drug use, meanwhile, increases demands on healthcare providers, contributes to overburdened criminal justice systems, and reduces workforce productivity. Addressing these challenges requires systemic changes, such as expanding access to affordable healthcare, implementing harm reduction strategies for drug users, and improving workplace policies to accommodate individuals recovering from brain injuries.

Studying brain injuries and drug use has deepened my understanding of how biology intersects with societal dynamics. Both topics reveal the delicate balance the body strives to maintain and the profound consequences when this balance is disrupted. They also underscore the importance of empathy and systemic support in addressing health challenges, not just as biological problems but as issues that shape communities and cultures. As I reflect on these connections, I’m reminded of the power of interdisciplinary thinking—how insights from biology, psychology, sociology, and ethics can come together to create more effective and compassionate solutions.

Ultimately, exploring these topics has been eye-opening. It’s easy to view health challenges like brain injuries or addiction as purely individual issues, but their effects ripple outward in ways that touch every aspect of society. By taking a holistic approach, we can address these problems at their roots, creating a healthier, more supportive environment for everyone.