Curated Paper 2 (Science is SEW Cool)

Science is “Sew” Cool

In my life, I have always struggled with choosing a path, because I felt that I had multiple diverse interests that just simply didn’t blend well. I loved to read and to learn about how things worked, but I also loved to sew. I always battled with the idea that I would have to choose one to dedicate my life to. I could either develop my creativity, or I could learn to be a scientific nerd; the two would simply never mesh. Ultimately, I chose the nerd life. As I began to really dive deep into the sciences in my college career, the thought kept coming to me, “what do I like so much about science?” Then it hit me! The things I loved about science were the same as what I loved about arts/crafts. I love to think outside of the box, find patterns, understand fundamentals, and then create something brand new with all the information. In my studies of the brain and drugs over the last few weeks I have found three key ways that scientific ideas impact my love for sewing. 1. All things have a foundation to build on- nothing simply snaps into being. 2. There are patterns to be found that, when understood, can help us to advance in both science and crafting. 3. It is often the small things that have the biggest long-term impacts.

 

Humans all begin as a basic form of the same material. We start out as a single cell with two copies of DNA. That DNA will replicate over and over and over again until it forms a fetus. This is the miracle of life. As I studied the functions of the brain, it is amazing to me that we all have the same general foundation of a brain. The lobes are the same, located in the same places, and provide the same general functions. If we all have the same layout, why are people so confusing? Why do we all have different personalities, different beliefs, and different ideas of common sense? This is because our brain is more than just its general layout. Our brain holds memories and experiences that are unique to each individual. Just like our brains are more than the simple general layout, each item of clothing that I make on a sewing machine is more than a basic layout. If you looked at the patterns for 100 different kinds of dresses, you would agree that they all have the same general layout. The things that make each dress unique are the minor details that are included to add “personality”. Just because everything has a basic layout does not mean it is simple. Some dresses are much more difficult than others and you can’t approach them all the same. This is true in sciences as well, especially when studying the brain. While the layout/foundation is all very similar, you cannot approach treatment’s/personality disorders with one blanket treatment. It is more complicated than that. Just about everything is more complicated than it seems.

 

Just as everything has a foundation, the world is made up of patterns. The disease of Huntington’s disease was discovered by a disruption of a genetic pattern that was necessary for proper function of basal ganglia. Our genes use patterns to send messages. If we had never learned to detect these patterns, we would have a very hard time discovering and curing any diseases at all. This game of finding patterns is what first caught my young heart with the sciences. Patterns in the stars, patterns in behavior, patterns in a quilt; they all are the same to me. Science has taught us the importance of patterns (not only in disease, but also in habit and success) and I have learned to apply that to my sewing. The more time I spend looking for patterns, the easier I can see them. This plays a huge role when it comes to lining up stripes, or taking liberties in altering a design. If I am not familiar with the patterns for what I am making, I could ruin the entire product, and it will not turn out to be what it was intended to be. Patterns are important in our DNA, in our neuro system, and in our day to day lives. Patterns are what help us to find incongruences in anything we are studying, thus leading to new discoveries.

 

Once we find the patterns of life, we must determine what it is that causes these patterns to be thrown off. When someone’s personality is not matching their typical “pattern,” or when lifelong habits and “patterns” become interrupted, we must first discover what has caused it before we can fix it. When it comes to the brain, and many other things in science, one small event can change an entire pattern, and maybe even a foundation. In the case of Alzheimer’s, a minor genetic mutation can cause a completely different pattern in the structure and development of the brain. Head trauma, drug use, and juvenile experiences all fit in this category as well. A severe concussion can cause a change in personality and learning ability. Maltreatment as a child can cause life-long anti-social behavior. The use of many harmful drugs can cause a change in the activity of your neurons. We often hear people criticize drug abusers saying that they just need to decide to quit. While this seems logical, the matter of fact is that our actions are much stronger than we sometimes realize. For some people to simple “decide to quit,” the withdrawal affect could be one that kills them. Small choices/events leave large impacts. This is true in sewing, as well. I have often joked that I only spend about 20% of a sewing project actually sewing. The rest of the time I am busy doing the “small things” that are important for the quality of my work. Things such as pressing the material with an iron, pinning everything neatly into place, and folding things just right make all the difference in the world. Small choices don’t ever feel as big as the impact they make in the moment they need to be made. Our brains are fragile, and we should treat them as such.

 

We all have a choice each and every day of what we are going to add to our masterpiece that day. We can choose to learn of the ways we can better care for our minds or we can choose to neglect our minds and the beautiful patterns that make us who we are. Of course, there are often other factors that we cannot control. Someone who does not have access to a sewing machine is not going to make their masterpieces the same way that I do, and it will be more difficult. This can be compared to those that are born with mental disorders or diseases that they had not control over, such as Autistic disorder or Asperger’s disorder. These disorders, however, do not take away a person’s ability to make something beautiful.  

 

While this application of science to my geeky hobby of sewing may seem cheesy, these are real things that I have discovered as I have taken time to do the two things I love this summer. When it comes to science, Ty Redd would always say, “You must be meticulous!” In order to understand new discoveries, or complex ideas, you must understand the foundation of the idea. Once you understand that, you can build by looking for patterns, and in some cases, you can even experiment with what happens when a pattern is broken. Just as we can do this with scientific ideas, I apply this each time I sit down to a project. This is my personal application, but I know these principles can be applied by anyone, to anything at all. Building a strong foundation, looking for patterns, and being mindful of the small things are what help each of us to make our own masterpieces.  These are the things that make us who we are.

 

 

Curated Paper #2 Drugs and the Brain

Curated Paper #2 Drugs and The Brain

Consciousness and the Human Experience

I spent a couple of years working in memory units of long term care facilities. After years of taking care of individuals who couldn’t express anything to you or remember anything about their life or were constantly tormented with bursts of rage or sadness, I developed a deep appreciation for my healthy brain that allowed me to perceive reality and my place in it. Consciousness and self-awareness is one thing that makes humans very unique. One of the things that makes a human … a human is the ability to achieve a sense of identity and consciousness. When the mind is out of balance the whole body is out of balance, or in other works Ayurveda is impossible to achieve when the mind is severely damaged.


The human experience as we know it depends on our brain’s ability to work correctly. When a brain isn’t functioning properly the human experience can be altered. Drugs can affect an individual’s perception of reality, and so can many neurological disorders. It’s tough to define what normal and healthy brain function is, and I think one good way of approaching understanding what it means to be conscious and healthy is to study examples where consciousness is altered. Here I will demonstrate that by talking about a few diseases of the brain and drugs.

The Brain and Its Ailment

First I would like to discuss two genetic diseases. Genetic diseases can help us better understand the importance and normal function of the affected genes. One very interesting and devastating neurological disease is Huntington’s. I have had one patient with Huntington’s during my time working as a CNA. This individual was in their mid-40s and had very strange mood and character changes. He also had memory problems and made rapid motions with his feet and hands. Huntington’s is autosomal dominant, meaning a parent with Huntington’s will have a 50% chance of passing it on to their child. One of the most devastating parts of this disease is that a person may not express symptoms until they are 30 meaning they could have already had children and not know the risk they would take in passing the disease onto their children. No cure exists for Huntington’s disease and the exact mechanism of the disease is not known. It is hypothesized that an accumulation of a “bad” protein caused by a defect in the responsible gene causes the symptoms of Huntington’s.


Another reason this disease can be so devastating is that a person loses their sense of identity slowly and inevitably. Neurological disorders, I think, are the most dangerous and frightening of all diseases. If one loses their sense of identity and reality, what does one have? Another terrible neurological disorder equally capable of brining distress is Tay- Sachs. This is an extremely rare genetic disease that destroyed the nervous system. The onset of this disease is usually around 6 months of age and its progression usually leads to the death of an individual around the age of 4 years old. The pathophysiology of this disease is based around the absence of an enzyme called hexosaminidase A. The Absence of this enzyme leads to the accumulation of gangliosides in nerve cells. This mutation is caused by a frameshift on the HEXA gene. By studying both Huntingtons and Tay- Sachs we can learn more about what the normal function of the genes responsible for these diseases are.


Genetic diseases are only one type of terrible thing that can alter consciousness. Traumatic brain injuries can also significantly change a person’s perception of reality. Anyone personally affected by a TBI knows how devastating they can be. After a TBI an individual can have a completely altered personality and perception of reality. Growing up one of my best friends had a TBI and more recently my sister’s boyfriend had a TBI. It seems that with TBIs people are more likely to develop negative traits such as aggression, impatience, and vulgarity. This is shown in the literature, but I couldn’t find any explanation as to why this is. By studying TBIs and the changes that occur I think we can gain a deeper understanding of the normal function and also if we were to uncover why people tend to have negative personality changes we could better understand how to treat and heal TBIs.

Drugs and Addiction

Drugs are a part of our daily life and they alter human consciousness on a variety of different levels. Some drugs completely rip consciousness away from us, while others stimulate our minds. From caffeine to prescription medications, the majority of the population interacts with some sort of drug daily. There are countless drugs that have improved the lives of millions of people. Drugs are an amazing resource to humans, but they can also be a detriment to health. In 2018, 67367 Opioid drug overdose deaths occurred in the United States. Maintaining a balance of the healthy use of drugs within the general public is a challenge, but the benefits of drugs greatly outweigh the negative inevitabilities. And in many cases, any alterations to consciousness are worth the benefits of the drug. Such as a drug that may make you slightly anxious but also helps your heart work properly, or drugs that are used in surgery to ensure you feel no pain or discomfort.


Addiction to drugs is a drug-induced disease that alters one’s perception of reality and the ability to think rationally. Anyone who has ever loved a drug addict knows that to comprehend why someone would go to such extreme measures to obtain drugs one must understand addiction is a disease. The pathophysiology of the disease is explained briefly as follows. The drug-induced release of dopamine triggers systematic changes in the communication between reward regions in the brain. Neuroplastic changes occur. Illicit or improper drug use affects the receptors in the brain and the transporters. The physiology of addiction is a fascinating field of study and with more study and knowledge obtained we are better able to treat addiction and to understand the Brain and its normal function, and also what the healthy use of drugs looks like. As terrible as it is, at the end of the day much of what we know about the brain comes from studying diseases and observing what happens in traumatic injuries of the brain.

The Classification and Analysis of “Drugs”

Faith Olson
Curated Paper 2
7/13/2020

The Classification and Analysis of “Drugs”

The United States created scheduled classifications of drugs based on abusiveness and medicinal uses under the Controlled Substances Act of 1970. Fueled by U.S. president Richard Nixon referring to it as “public enemy number one.” The term “war on drugs” coined in 1971 changed the way scientist and the FDA viewed drugs then and still greatly impacts the research today. Schedule 1 contains drugs such as Heroin, Marijuana, LSD, and Ecstasy. Schedule 2 contains Cocaine, Adderall, Oxycodone. Schedule 3 listed as Ketamine, Testosterone. Schedule four contains Xanax, Valium, and Ambien. Schedule 5 is viewed as low abuse rates that contains Motofen and Parepectolin.  

            All drugs use chemical compounds to change behavior, mood, and change pathways within the brain that travels throughout the body. These compounds use neurons to relay the changes through the body creating the desirable effect of the user. Neurons are a part of the synapses that decides and regulates the body. There are many ways for the chemical compounds to enter the body such as administered orally, and externally within shots. The chemicals are often taken externally to replicate those compounds that normally develop naturally within the body, however, are not balanced as much as they should be. Most commonly medicinal chemical compounds are taken orally in the form of pills and are often found in most homes across the United States. These chemicals are prescribed by a professional doctor to generally enhance everyday life for the patient. Majority of people throughout the united states take some sort of medication.

            It is often ill advised among the medical community to diagnosis children with disorders and use medications to treat such disorders. The medical problem with diagnosing children with disorders is that medications are often prescribed to help regulate the child. However, in the effort to regulate development could be affected drastically. Brain function development is the most important aspect of growth in children. How children spend their childhood changes how their brains are mapped and grow. Initially after drugs enter the body is the dopamine increase. After a constant steady intake of the certain drug the brain naturally reduces the production of dopamine. Eventually, the brain struggles to function without the drug which is when the brain begins its dependence phase

            Illicit Drugs are drugs are not the conventional everyday usage these are drugs not often prescribed. The brain changes depending on the specifics of the drugs and medications. Sadly nearly 50% of Americans over 12 years old has tried some sort of illicit drug. These compounds are not meant for adolescence and can change the way the brain develops its pathways and grows. This statistic is based on both boys and girls and thus with nearly 50% using means that it is practically a national average for adolescence and young adults. Men statistically are more likely to experience a variety of illicit drugs than women. African Americans are less likely to try illicit drugs than their counterparts of white Americans. This is a large exploitation based on the American justice system and incarcerated per capita of African Americans, however, has not changed the way FDA views pharmaceutical drugs nor how the DEA views these scheduled illicit Drugs. Based on the information and the appropriate research from the 2006 study of how psilocybin reduces post traumatic stress disorders a major change could be made by the DEA to reclassify the scheduled drugs (Griffiths et al.). Moreover, possible prison reform for possession charges.

References:

Griffiths, R. R., Richards, W. A., Mccann, U., & Jesse, R. (2006). Psilocybin can occasion mystical-type experiences having substantial and sustained personal meaning and spiritual significance. Psychopharmacology, 187(3), 268-283. doi:10.1007/s00213-006-0457-5

Effects of THC and Psilocybin on the Human brain

Effects of THC and Psilocybin

on the Human brain

Humans have been known to consume drugs since thousands of years, but what are the real effects of drugs on our brain? In this journal, I wanted to research the effect of different drugs on our brain, and particularly psilocybin and marijuana.

As medical and recreational marijuana is becoming more and more commons nowadays, very little is known about its life-long effects on the Human brain. Multiple studies shows that it can have significant impact on the brain if the consumption started before sixteen years old. In adults, regular consumption of marijuana can also lead to negative effects, for example this article written by Filbey and al. show interesting effects of marijuana on the adolescent and adult brain, “ In this study, we found that chronic exposure to marijuana (i) reduces OFC gray matter volume, (ii) increases structural and functional connectivity, and (iii) leads to neural alterations that are modulated by age of onset and duration of use.” as mentioned at the end of the article, a cease in marijuana intake could possible reverse those effects, but more study is needed to confirm this hypothesis. The findings of this study are particularly interesting, as decrease in gray matter leads to poor life decision and more emotional problems. Heavy and chronic exposure to marijuana has been demonstrated to be harmful for Human, while it can also be used for its medical properties, it should be used in moderate and controlled amount to prevent any side effects on the Human brain.

On the other hand, schools used to teach us that marijuana has a negative effect on the brain, and causes IQ decline as well as other mental diseases. While searching for evidence to this claim, I found an article written by Jackson and al. that claim “In the largest longitudinal examination of marijuana use and IQ change, using two samples to replicate results and a genetically informative design, we find little evidence to suggest that adolescent marijuana use has a direct effect on intellectual decline. […] the lack of a dose–response relationship, and an absence of meaningful differences between discordant siblings lead us to conclude that the deficits observed in marijuana users are attributable to confounding factors that influence both substance initiation and IQ rather than a neurotoxic effect of marijuana.” The conclusion of this study is very interesting, as they also had twins, one that used marijuana during his teenage years and one that did not. No difference in IQ was found between the two individuals. This could mean that marijuana use in teenage years actually has no effect on the IQ of an individual, and the difference seen in different studies that claim the opposite could be attributed the environmental and socio-economic factors. As more and more countries throughout the world are legalising marijuana for recreational (and medicinal) use, I believe it is crucial to know the potential effects of this drug and especially on the young population. And while marijuana use may not affect one’s IQ, it may have other negative effect on the population such as mentioned before.

In the world, very few countries have legalised the use of psilocybin. For a few decades, more studies on psilocybin and its potential benefits on the brain has been studied. An article called “Potential Therapeutic Effects of Psilocybin” claim huge improvement in anxiety and depression after a single use of psilocybin “These two studies, in particular, provide strong evidence showing substantial decreases in depressive and anxious symptoms that appear to persist for at least 6 months after a single active treatment. Such results are unprecedented in psychiatry.”(Johnson and al.). Another study done on depression and anxiety in cancer patients showed a mood improvement “Participants attributed to the high-dose experience positive changes in attitudes about life, self, mood, relationships and spirituality, with over 80% endorsing moderately or higher increased well-being or life satisfaction.” (Griffiths and al.). These two studies are very promising as depression and anxiety has been researched for years, and psilocybin could be an effective treatment.

References

Filbey, F. M., Aslan, S., Calhoun, V. D., Spence, J. S., Damaraju, E., Caprihan, A., & Segall, J. (2014). Long-term effects of marijuana use on the brain. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 111(47), 16913-16918.

Jackson, N. J., Isen, J. D., Khoddam, R., Irons, D., Tuvblad, C., Iacono, W. G., ... & Baker, L. A. (2016). Impact of adolescent marijuana use on intelligence: Results from two longitudinal twin studies. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 113(5), E500-E508.

Johnson, M. W., & Griffiths, R. R. (2017). Potential therapeutic effects of psilocybin. Neurotherapeutics, 14(3), 734-740.

Griffiths, R. R., Johnson, M. W., Carducci, M. A., Umbricht, A., Richards, W. A., Richards, B. D., ... & Klinedinst, M. A. (2016). Psilocybin produces substantial and sustained decreases in depression and anxiety in patients with life-threatening cancer: A randomized double-blind trial. Journal of psychopharmacology, 30(12), 1181-1197. 

Diseases and Drugs

         The brain has always been one of the most intriguing organs in the human body to me.  I find its complexity and effect on the body to be very interesting.  The brain has different specialized parts and lobes that help to control different things like memory, personality, and body function.  Many brain injuries and health concerns are not fully understood, making them harder to treat and cure.  These injuries and health concerns can have a large impact on the body’s Ayurveda and overall health.

            As a healthcare worker, I have many clients that are affected from brain related diseases and disorders.  One of my clients has multiple sclerosis.  Multiple sclerosis is a disease of the brain and spinal cord.  Essentially, the immune system attacks the protective sheath that covers nerve fibers and causes communicative problems between the brain and rest of the body.  This particular client was diagnosed with the disease when he was 32 and has progressively gotten worse as he has aged.  He stated that his earlier symptoms were that he had weakness in his legs.  As he aged, he has had a lot of difficulty moving and can no longer get up on his own.  He uses a motorized wheelchair to move and to complete his activities of daily living. 

            Something that I found interesting through my research was the world distribution of multiple sclerosis and how some countries were higher risk than others.  This was interesting to me because the exact cause of multiple sclerosis is unknown.  Researchers have found that age, genetics, and other autoimmune conditions play a role in possible causes for multiple sclerosis.  Although the exact cause is unknown, β-interferon appears helpful in preventing relapse and helps to delay the progression of multiple sclerosis, helping those affected by this disease.

            Another common disease associated with the brain is Alzheimer’s disease.  Alzheimer’s disease is not very well understood in what causes it, making it difficult to treat.  Researchers do know that there is heritability within the disease.  Most AD patients show plaques in certain regions of their brain that display cell loss.  Research has brought drug treatment for those with Alzheimer’s disease but has no cure for the brain related problem.  Many clients I see as a certified nurse’s assistant have AD and reside in the memory care unit in the assisted living homes.  It is educating and sad to see this disease take a toll on the memory and life of these individuals.

            In a research paper relating to Alzheimer’s disease and the secretion of notch and notch signaling, Okochi et al. found that multiple Alzheimer’s disease mutants also cause an increase in the secretion of a specific form of Nβ (secreted during Notch signaling).  This study could lead to more research concerning regulated intramembrane proteolysis signaling like Notch.  When regulated intramembrane proteolysis (RIP) is better understood, medicine and treatment regarding Alzheimer’s and diseases concerning the RIP pathway could also become improved.  Development with better treatment and a cure could come if RIP and Notch pathway mechanisms were understood better.

            Something else I found fascinating when researching brain related injuries was traumatic brain injuries (TBI) and the personality changes these injuries had on the individual.  I just completed Abnormal Psychology and we briefly learned about the impact that TBI has on personality changes.  The story that I found most fascinating was about Phineas P. Gage.  When I first heard this story, I thought that he would have died, but he almost had a complete physical recovery after the accident.  What changed dramatically was his personality.  TBI can produce a diminished state of consciousness and can result in impaired cognitive abilities like seen in Phineas Gage.  In a paper from The American Journal of Sports Medicine, they discuss the outcomes after sports-related concussions.  Something that caught my attention was that the rate of same-season repeat was relatively low.  I expected it to be much higher than what was found in the study. 

            Along with different diseases, drugs have a major impact on the brain, its development, and overall health.  Broadly speaking, drugs interfere with the brain’s neurons and how they receive and send signals.  They also affect the processing of these specific signals.  This occurs via neurotransmitters.  This happens when the specific drug attaches to the neurotransmitter, activating the coordinating neuron.  These drugs mimic the chemical signals in the brain, but they do not activate the neuron in the same way that it naturally would.  This causes irregularities in the messages that are sent to the brain, causing problems in the brain, its development, and the body’s overall health.

            Something that I found interesting was the research involving prescription drugs and prescription drug abuse.  Some legal prescription drugs can block pathways in the brain, while others are able to help specific pathways function more efficiently.  Prescription drug abuse is very common, especially among teenagers and college students.  In Abnormal Psychology, we talked about how Utah is always one of the highest states for prescription drug abuse over all other states.  We discussed how many abusers ‘doctor shop’ so they are able to get multiple prescriptions filled.  While prescription drugs can be a good thing if used as prescribed, some may argue that through this you are still altering the function of the brain and this leads to the misuse of the drug.  The complexity of the brain makes it difficult to fully understand the affects of these drugs, used prescribed or using through abuse.

            In a review titled, “Ayurveda and natural products drug discovery”, the authors looked at the discovery and development of medicine and its role on Ayurveda.  They discussed how combining the knowledge that has been obtained through science and research and an Ayurveda approach will allow for new functionalities like reduced time, money, and toxicity put into drug development.  This article brought on a new perspective of combining both Ayurveda and modern science to allow for a better approach to drug medicine and research.  This could improve the overall quality and health of the brain for those that are using the specific drug for health purposes like treating brain related diseases.

            Learning about the functions of the brain, the disorders and diseases associated, and the effects of drugs, has always held my interest.  Taking a deeper dive into the affects, causes, and treatments of these diseases and disorders has helped to broaden and deepen my understanding of them and their complexity.  A research paper titled, “Mind, Brain, and Personality Disorders” helped me to understand that each disorder and disability is unique and needs to be treated as such.  They stated that terms like the “mind” and “brain” are associated with a set of polarities, which holds truth, but I had never thought of it like that before.  All of this has helped me to understand the complexities behind certain brain disorders and diseases and the effect of drugs on the brain.

           

           

Beyond Biological Science

Sandon Stokes

Curated Paper #2

July 13, 2020

Beyond Biological Science 

In the day to day life of a college student, there are many different areas where the focus may lie. Some of those include classwork, careers, hobbies, health, wellness, friends and family. These areas are not directly connected to biological science, but in their own way science can play a role in each of these activities. The smallest of molecules to the largest organ systems can contribute to our interactions with other areas of our lives outside the field of science. 

Two main fields of science that can influence other aspects of life are the function of the brain and how drugs affect the body. The brain is an extremely complex organ that contains on average 86 billion neurons by some estimates. This amazing organ in essence controls every function of the human body. From the most precise brush strokes of an artist, the muscle strength of a powerlifter and even how we feel and perceive emotions is controlled and made possible by the brain. 

When the brain is not functioning correctly this could be recognized as a mental disorder. This could be caused by many factors including traumatic brain injuries, genetic, or environmental influences. Some of the most common mental disorders in the United States are anxiety, depression and different types of dementia. Some of these disorders originate in the brain’s chemical messenger system from miscommunication between neurons and/or a lack of or overabundance of neurotransmitters.

These disorders can be detrimental to the human body itself and also in other aspects of life. These areas could include family and friend relationships, careers, hobbies, and educational pursuits. When the chemical messengers are not communicating correctly it has been found that personalities and moods can change drastically. These chemical imbalances can lead to constant fluctuations in mood, activity levels and even differences in personality. In the case of Phineas Gage, a traumatic brain injury damaged a large part of his left frontal lobe. From this damage, the brain could not communicate in the same way and this event altered his personality, temperament and essentially who he was previously as a person. Because of this personality change his personal friendships and family relationships were greatly influenced. When drastic changes like these occur in the biological network of the brain there can be noticeable differences in personal interactions and in day to day functions

Another area that brain disease can influence is career and other monetary life pursuits. An example of how brain disease influences careers comes from the early years of Major League Baseball. Lou Gerhrig was top athlete of his day and played 1st base for the New York Yankees. After 19 seasons of stellar fielding and batting his neuromuscular health deteriorated and he had to withdraw himself from the starting lineup. Soon after withdrawing he was diagnosed with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis(ALS) and would never be able to play another game of baseball. So drastic was his physical change that his career ended and lost most control of his muscular function. From a biological defect in his genome it caused the loss of his career and affected how he could interact with those around him as well.

In combating mental disease and disorders a main focus of the current scientific field is researching new pharmaceuticals. These drugs have been synthesized by medicinal chemists and are also found through natural products occurring in nature. Their aim is to help the chemical messenger systems to work correctly by targeting specific increases or decreases in neurotransmitters. The goal is to allow people to function optimally again and be free of the various disorders. These pharmaceuticals have been helpful to a certain extent but many of them have side effects that can be detrimental in other areas of life.

In the case of depression medications, they help the body produce and maintain levels of serotonin which can lead to more feeling of enjoyment and happiness. On the down side though there are side effects like increased appetite, weight gain, nausea, sexual dysfunction, and even anxiety has been repeatedly reported. Side effects as these contribute to the overall physical and mental health of individuals. And as was discussed in the examples above these undesired changes can influence personal relationships and other aspects of life drastically

Overall, It is interesting to see how biological processes contribute to connections with others and overall feelings of well being. It shows that chemical messengers can influence other areas of life broader than human physiology. Science is not just a field of study explaining the natural world, but it also helps explain how we interact with others, our career pursuits and our very own emotions are controlled from a biological perspective. 

How Psychological Disorders Should Be Diagnosed

              Personality disorders have long been assumed to be purely psychological and could only be diagnosed with behavior. This is evidenced by how the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders is arranged; it lists out a set of behaviors that is exhaustive and inclusive to help practitioners identify a psychological issue. Behaviors can be altered easily; People change their behavior when they are in different social circles, situations, and even as a job. If the only method of diagnosis is based on easily manipulated variables, then the validity of the diagnosis is variable. In addition to the DSM, mental disorders should be diagnosed by physical characteristics in the brain.

The article, Mind, Brain, and Personality Disorders describes mentalization as the ability to perceive others emotion. “A caregiver who ascribes mental states to the child, treats the child as a mental agent, and helps the child to create internal working models” (pg. 651). It explains that some children who have suffered from abuse cannot perceive others’ emotions as well because mentalization is a skill we learn through socialization. It implies that we learned how to smile when we are happy and frown when we feel anger but that is inaccurate because facial expressions are the same in all cultures. An article titled Universal Facial Expression of Emotion, concluded that facial expression is universal but the reaction to the stimuli to evoke certain facial expressions differs between cultures. Since the behavior is indistinguishable across cultures, it is a natural phenomenon and genetic. If a child needs to be taught how to process facial expressions, there is a defective gene which caused a defective brain.

              In 2007 a study on the frontal lobe of patients with borderline personality disorder showed that there was a physical difference in their brains. The size of the left orbitofrontal cortex and right anterior cingulate cortex was reduced. The right anterior cingulate cortex is associated with empathy, emotions, impulse control, and decision making and the left orbitofrontal cortex is associated with decision making and reward systems. The symptoms of borderline personality disorder include extreme emotional mood swings, impulsiveness, and poor decision making which are linked with the observable decrease in brain size in the areas mentioned above. Lower fractional anisotropy, a word to describe when osmosis is less restricted in all directions in the brain, which is associated with impulsiveness in schizophrenics is also observed in those with BPD (Jon E. Grant, 2007).

              Autism, a disorder with similar symptoms to BPD is explained as being “characterized by complete absence of mentalization on a neurological basis” also has the same physical representation such as a decrease in volume of the right anterior cingulate cortex (M. Mehmet Haznedar, 1997). Unlike autism, “a patient with borderline personality disorder often retains partial ability to mentalize under some circumstances” (Gabbard, 2005, p. 652). When looking at the physical manifestation of the psychological disorders, they appear to be the same disorder. However, they are assumed to be different because the severity of the symptoms are different.

              Autism is often undiagnosed in females. Because diagnoses of psychological issues are not performed with MRI machines, but determined by how people act, it is up to the sufferers to communicate there is something wrong by diverging from appropriate behavior. The problem arises when the disorder is present, but the symptoms are not. Autistic females do not deviate from acceptable behavior in ways other than communication impairment (Frazier, 2014). Studies have suggested that it is because there is more of a pressure on females to conform. Girls are motivated to have friends and they are subjected to bullying if they are not sociable. Gender roles may also be a factor as girls are raised to be nurturing and anti-social behavior contradicts those roles. Autistic symptoms do not conflict with the role of dominance for boys so autistic males do not have as much pressure on them to conform. Girls tend to mask their symptoms so they can receive less negative feedback, also called the camouflage hypothesis. Girls are less likely to show autistic behaviors and, therefore, less likely to diagnosed (Anna Cook, 2018).

               Coincidentally, borderline personality disorder is diagnosed in girls more than boys. It has been suggested that clinicians hold a female bias when diagnosing because the most known symptoms are more likely to be expressed in women. Another reason is differential justice, certain groups receive different consequences for the same behavior. For example, a woman self-destructive behavior may take drugs and end up in a mental hospital but a man with the same behavior will end up in prison and not get the treatment he needs(Randy A. Sansone, 2011).

              Not only are the brains of those diagnosed with autism and borderline personality disorder similar, the symptoms are as well. A study showed that 42 out of 62 women with autism could be diagnosed with a personality disorder based on the criteria in the DSM-IV. With that much overlap it is reasonable to assume that many autistic women are misdiagnosed with BPD and many men with BPD are misdiagnosed with autism. There are limitations to diagnosing psychological disorders through behavior only because how people react to illness and how they perceive their disorders differ, so the symptoms differ. It is imperative that psychologist recognize autism and BPD as a brain defect and make a standard model for a brain with those disorders. BPD and autism cannot effectively be diagnosed by how the patients act, it needs to be identified by what the brain looks like (Robert B. Dudas, 2017).

References

Anna Cook, J. O. (2018). Friendship motivations, challenges and the role of Masking for Girls. European Journal of Special Needs Education, 302-315.

Ekman, P. (1970). Universal Facial Expressions of Emotion. California Mental Health Research Digest, 151-158.

Frazier, D. T. (2014). Behavioral and Cognitive Characteristics of Females and Males. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry, 329-340.

Gabbard, G. O. (2005). Mind, Brain, and Personality Disorders. Am J Psychiatry, 648-655.

Jon E. Grant, J. M. (2007). Frontal White Matter. The Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical, 383–390.

M. Mehmet Haznedar, M. M. (1997). ANTERIOR CINGULATE GYRUS VOLUME. Am J Psychiatry, 1047-1050.

Randy A. Sansone, E. a. (2011). Gender Patterns in Borderline Personality Disorder. Innovations in CLINICAL NEUROSCIENCE, 16-20.

Robert B. Dudas, E. A. (2017). The overlap between autistic spectrum conditions and borderline personality disorder. PLoS ONE, 1-13.

 

The Human Brain And How Drugs Affect The Brain

Daniela Cozzi
Capstone: Biology of Disease

The brain is one of the most complex organ found in the human body. Only weighing in at three pounds, the brain is also one of the most powerful organ in the human body. There are still many mysteries to be discovered and questions to be answered. It's responsible for many functions throughout the body like movement, feeling, memories and sensation. It has the most complexity and importance in our bodies. Throughout the years, we have learned a great deal about the brain and connections of neurons that allows us to function. Our brain is an unbelievable organ and makes us who we are. Researchers are still exploring connections and the complexity of the brain to understand the mechanism of a healthy brain.
The brain is a well protected organ compared to other organs in your body. The first layer is known as the skull, which is like the armor for the brain. Between the skull and the brain are the next layers that are the meninges, they surround the brain and spinal cord. The outermost layer is called the Dura mater, which is made up of two layers of whitish membrane. The second layer is called Arachnoid, which is a thin layer and surrounds the brain loosely. The Pia mater is the layer that is found closest to the brain. There is a space between the Arachnoid and Pia is called subarachnoid space and that’s where the cerebrospinal fluid flows.
The brain has four lobes known as the frontal, parietal,temporal and occipital. The different regions work all together but certain regions are responsible for carrying certain functions. The cerebral cortex is the outermost layer of the brain and it's why the brain appears to be wrinkly. The reason behind the folding, bumps and grooves is to increase surface area. The bumps are called gyri and the groves are called sulci. The frontal lobe helps certain functions like emotional regulation, planning, and problem solving. The parietal lobe is responsible for sensation like touch, temperature, pressure and pain.The temporal lobe is responsible for hearing, language, and forming memories. The occipital lobe is responsible for processing your vision to see the depth distance and location of the object. The average brain is composed of around 80-90 billion neurons. Signals pass through neurons of different shapes, sizes to help us function. The neurons cell bodies form the gray matter and glial cells form the white matter.
Neurons send messages to other neurons by releasing chemicals called neurotransmitters. Different types of drugs affect the process of communication. The neurotransmitters work by being released from nerve endings into synaptic cleft, then joining the receptor proteins of the tissue. This allows the tissue to get excited or allows the tissue to function. There are different types of neurotransmitters in the body. There are more than 40 neurotransmitters in the nervous system, some examples are acetylcholine, dopamine and serotonin. A neurotransmitter can be classified as an excitatory or inhibitory. The difference between an excitatory and inhibitory is effects on a future action. An excitatory neurotransmitter increases the effects of a future action. An inhibitory works to prevent a future action. An example of an excitatory neurotransmitter is acetylcholine which helps muscle function and regulate sleep cycle. An example of an inhibitory neurotransmitter is serotonin which helps regulate emotions and body temperature. There is an exception with dopamine neurotransmitters which are both excitatory and inhibitory. It helps to prevent unnecessary movements and helps increase growth hormone.
Researchers don't know exactly the short term and long term effects that different drugs have on the brain. Drugs cause an imbalance to the brain's chemistry affecting the brain. Cough and cold medicines taken in high quantities or with no symptoms can cause effects similar to illegal drugs and it's known to cause addiction as well. Illegal drugs and prescription medicine change the way the brain works by changing the communication but these changes cause an imbalance in the brain. As we have seen in many cases that an unbalance in the body can have severe side effects. The communication between neurons via neurotransmitter is impacted by different drugs. There are drugs like marijuana and heroin that activate the neurons. They mimic the natural neurotransmitters in the body but it’s not the same as our natural communication. They don’t activate the neurons the same way and lead to uncommon messages being communicated. Other types of drugs like Amphetamine or cocaine, sometimes prevent normal communication. Or another effect is a release of a large number of neurotransmitters. Both cause an unbalance in the communication between the neurons. This unbalance causes different parts of the brain to be altered. The prefrontal cortex allows you to think, solve and make decisions. When in this area there is an unbalance, it has severe side effects especially in teens as it is the last part of the brain to mature. In the basal ganglia is another area drugs impact that reduces sensitivity and pleasure beside the drug. This is where addiction comes in and people need to use it to feel the sensation. Drugs have an effect on the body that creates dopamine, which makes you feel good. The truth is that dopamine's real job is to allow us to continue survival behavior, like sleeping and eating. The effects of the drug do not just end when the drug dies off. When the dopamine levels drop, you start to feel down and can’t really enjoy pleasures in life. The brain needs to find the balance and sometimes it takes hours or days to restore that balance. Teens are at more risk because they seek to find pleasure and usually don’t think about any consequences. Teens' brains are in the process of maturing and neurons aren’t fully protected. This causes teens to be more sensitive to drugs and are impacted more than adults. Having bigger impacts causes more negative experiences of emotion and addiction. Some long term effects are health issues like liver damage and heart problems. Also it impacts how you develop emotional and memory. Teens need to be more aware of the short-term and long term effects on any substance use. 

Each year almost 100,000 people die of side effects of synthetic drugs. Almost eight percent of people who are hospitalized are from the side effects of synthetic drugs. Are Over the Counter drugs completely safe to take? Lot of people turn to herbal medicine which is used in Ayurveda medicine. Generally herbal medicine has a less stronger side effects or no effects at all. Ayurveda medicine focuses on not just treating one exact problem but supporting all the systems. Herbal medicines are very complex and have a lot of different compounds. There is still some risk of poisoning from medical plants that were shown. Overall herbal medicine is a safe way to go because it’s a more natural change rather than a huge shock to the body. There is still a lot of research that needs to be done but I would be really interested to see how some herbal medicines would be better to use than other types of drugs.