Brain and Drugs

 Brain and Drugs

            The brain is the most complex organ in our body and has ability to control every process that regulates our body and mind. The brain does this by sending and receiving both chemical and electrical signals and transforming those signals into responses. The brain is divided into two halves, a left and a right cortex. The left cortex is responsible for controlling language and speech, and the right side deals with visual information. The brain is further split into four lobes: the frontal lobe, parietal lobe, temporal lobe, and occipital lobe. Each controls a range of different functions throughout the body. 

            The signals that the brain receives from throughout the body start at a single synapse. This synapse will produce an electrical signal to release neurotransmitters, which are chemical messengers that diffuse to more neurons and bind to their specialized receptor proteins (Kirichik, 2018). These specialized receptor proteins typically are on the ends of dendrites and are responsible for receiving and processing the electrical messages. Once the signal has arrived at the dendrite, it will be sent through the axon to more neurons or to the target body tissue. These neurotransmitters cause changes to take place throughout the neurons, as the body responds to the signals. These neurons can connect to one or several neurons at once, leading to a calculated response. After the body has responded accordingly, the neurotransmitter will then be broken down by enzymes or reabsorbed for later use. 

            The use of drugs and other substances can inhibit brain signaling or cause abnormal messaging to occur. Each drug has different effects on the brain and its chemical signaling, however the process of each is generally the same. The effect of drugs starts at synaptic transmission, and mimic or activate normal neurotransmitters. This interferes with the way the neurons not only send but receive messages. Even though drugs can activate natural neurotransmitters, they don’t occur the same as natural signaling, leading to abnormal messages to be sent to the brain. This can cause drugs to rewire the brains normal functions, and permanently damage and change our brains functions. 

            Some areas of the brain that are affected by drug use include basal ganglia, the extended amygdala, and prefrontal cortex. The basal ganglia are responsible for motivation, the extended amygdala controls anxiety and irritability, and the prefrontal cortex controls our thinking abilities (NIDA, 2022). Addiction and dependence escalate these effects and can decrease your body’s natural pleasure centers. Your brain will stop releasing its normal production of endorphins and dopamine, causing your brain to feel dependent on the drugs for feelings of pleasure. 

            While the root of this problem seems to be through the use of illegal and illicit drugs, that isn’t the case. The pharmaceuticals used and prescribed commonly in Western Medicine can lead to the same effects, and the abuse of these drugs is on the rise. Prescription drugs are becoming more readily available, and with that the number of cases involving drug abuse and misuse are increasing. Because of this, it would be beneficial for modern medicine to implement some of the ideas and practices of ayurvedic medicine. Having a more holistic and natural approach to medicine would help to shut down the increase in prescription drug use, and abuse. 

 

References

Kirichik, Roman. “Introduction to Brain Signaling.” Diversity in Neuroscience, 2018, https://neuroscience.mssm.edu/nestler/nidappg/introduction_to_brain_signaling.html. 

NIDA. "Drugs and the Brain." National Institute on Drug Abuse, 22 Mar. 2022, https://nida.nih.gov/publications/drugs-brains-behavior-science-addiction/drugs-brain Accessed 29 Jul. 2022.

The Brain and Balance

 

            The brain is an incredibly complex and important organ in the body. The brain controls every aspect of our lives from muscle movement to autonomic function, and even our personalities. The brain is like the body's switchboard. It takes in, interprets, and communicates every signal in the body and allows the body to function properly. Malfunction in the brain can be detrimental to so many other parts of the body. 

            Brain science is completely foreign to me and is something I will probably never fully understand. the brain, being so complex, is the source of so many disorders that it's difficult to even wrap my own brain around it. Many of the disorders dealing with the brain are caused by imbalances or something going awry in the nervous system. The wide range of disorders includes dementias, personality disorders, mood disorders, injuries within the brain itself, debilitating fatal diseases, and addiction. Many of these disorders do now have exact known causes, and many affect the entire body while some are central to the brain and nervous system. 

            Mood disorders, and mental health disorders are some of the more confusing brain disorders that I would love to have a better understanding of. There is so much research available but knowing where to begin seems a little overwhelming. The connection between brain function and psychological research is so strong that is seems like all the answers should be available. Many psychologists operate under the idea that the brain is a muscle and can be trained and changed over time to produce proper functioning. However, there is also the other side that thinks psychological disfunction is the product of chemical imbalances that requires intervention from other sources to maintain chemical balance in thee brain. Finding the middle ground here is the key when discussing mental illnesses , and psychological disfunction. This goes back to the idea of Ayurveda and creating balance within the body and life. 

            Another aspect of the brain that has a huge impact on society is addiction. This is a hard topic to discuss (so it will be brief) as addiction runs in my family, and currently we are dealing with several family members actively suffering or trying to recover from addiction. 

            Addiction is so strongly connected to brain chemistry. The brain becomes overwhelmed with a rush of signals, and when it no longer receives those signals, it craves more in order to restore the chemicals that were missing or lost. Seeing exactly how addiction has affected my family, and my growing knowledge of science and the brain, I have become more empathetic and able to better understand exactly why addiction and drug use is such a hard habit to break. Drug use, in the beginning, is a choice but addiction and the affects afterwards are in no way a choice, and restoring proper chemical balances in the brain is a lifelong battle. 

            So many aspects of the brain and diseases can be related back to the idea of balance and Ayurveda, and even metabolism. Since the brain is the center of nearly every aspect of our lives, it is connected to so many biological processes. Relating more to Ayurveda and the idea of balance, the brain is arguably the center of everything. 

Diseases of the Brain and their Consequences

 

In order to understand the diseases of the brain, we must first have a basic understanding of the brain. Every human being has a brain. Many would argue that the brain is one of the most important organs in the human body. It is made up of sixty percent fats. The other forty percent is comprised of water, proteins, carbohydrates, and salts. It is split into three main parts: the cerebrum, the brainstem, and the cerebellum. The cerebrum is the largest portion of the brain. The cerebrum is split into four lobes. The frontal lobe is responsible for a person’s personality, speech, movements, and sense of smell. The parietal lobe aids in spatial awareness and object identification. It also allows a person to recognize touch and pain. The occipital lobe is responsible for our ability to see. Lastly, the temporal lobe controls short-term memory and a sense of musical rhythm. The brainstem is also made up of multiple parts. The brainstem is what connects the cerebrum to the spinal cord. The final part of the brain is the cerebellum and it maintains posture and balance. All of these parts of the brain work together, allowing us to function the way we do.

The brain and the mind are often discussed as if they are the same. In reality, the mind is the activity of the brain. Most disorders of the mind tend to be caused by an entanglement of genetic imbalances and environmental factors. Some research has shown that psychosocial stressors have a significant effect on the way the brain functions. One of the most common psychosocial stressors people face is trauma. Trauma is one of the leading causes of the development of mental illnesses. There is no easy way to undo the effects of trauma on the brain. However, the brain must be healed to heal the mind.

Many types of diseases can affect the brain. Neurological disorders can impact motor, cognitive, and emotional functions. Multiple Sclerosis, ALS, and Parkinson’s fall into this category. Personality disorders, such as schizophrenia and OCD, affect behavior and mood. There are also developmental disorders like autism and Prader-Willi. Storage disorders are characterized by defective lysosomal enzymes. When this happens in the brain we see conditions like Tay-Sachs and Gaucher. Lastly, there are prion diseases which are rare and fatal. They are caused when prion proteins are misfolded and clump together in the brain. Many of these begin during childhood and continue into adulthood.

Alzheimer’s is a neurological disease. It is unknown what the cause of Alzheimer’s is but there is a genetic factor in the odds of developing it. Most patients have plaques in the brain which hinder neuron functionality. The second common thing seen in Alzheimer’s patients is broken microtubules in the neurons. These two things are extremely important because neurons are responsible for sending action potentials. Action potentials are the body’s way of signaling that some change must occur in order to maintain homeostasis. Without these action potentials, many bodily functions cannot occur. This disease has an immensely negative effect on memory and thinking. Millions of people have Alzheimer’s and it is one of the top ten causes of death in the United States. Alzheimer’s treatment is expensive. In 2020, healthcare institutions spent over 300 billion dollars on treatment.

Another common mental illness is depression. This falls under personality and mood disorders. There are many types of depression. Postpartum depression is seen in women shortly after giving birth. Psychotic depression is seen when someone suffers from a form of psychosis as well as depression. Seasonal depression is present during the colder months when there is less sunlight. This is usually “healed” after winter passes but can return. Bipolar disorder is sometimes considered a form of depression because one may experience lows that meet all criteria of depression. Depression is caused by an amalgam of genetic and environmental factors. The greatest risk factor for depression is a family history. It is also commonly brought about by stress. Lastly, injury to the brain can give rise to this ailment. Forty-four percent of people who experience a traumatic brain injury will develop depression.

Another way the delicate system of the brain can be disrupted is by consuming drugs. Drugs are substances that have a physiological impact on the body. These molecules disrupt neural physiology. There are many categories of drugs. Prescription drugs can be retrieved from pharmacies for medical uses. Over-the-counter drugs are sold at regular stores and most do not have restrictions on who can purchase them. Recreational drugs are used for fun. Lastly, illicit drugs are those that the government has banned such as cocaine and methamphetamine. Some drugs work by activating neurons, whereas others block the activation of neurons. Drugs are only effective if they can reach the brain. To do this they must first enter the blood. The method of administration determines how quickly drugs enter the bloodstream. Oral consumption is the slowest and injecting is the fastest. Once in the blood, the drug(s) must pass the blood-brain barrier. They can do so because they resemble chemicals that the body naturally produces. Drugs are a common part of our lives, yet we do not understand the full physiological, sociological, or ecological impacts they could have now or in the future. 

The repeated use of drugs can permanently alter your neural network and can lead to a disease called addiction where drugs are prioritized over work, family, and health. People are more at risk of developing an addiction if they have an impulsive personality or have suffered abuse.  Due to the fact that addiction affects the prefrontal cortex, some people may be unaware of the ramifications their addiction has. According to the Association of American Medical Colleges, twenty-one million Americans suffer from addiction, yet many do not get treatment because of the negative stigma around it.

Caffeine is the most commonly used psychoactive chemical globally. Caffeine works by binding to adenosine receptors, which causes an increase in the production of adrenaline. The increase in adrenaline increases blood flow and sugar output from the liver. This is what causes the sensation of having more energy. Caffeine is found in coffee, tea, chocolate, sodas, and energy drinks. One study found that almost ninety percent of American adults report regular caffeine intake. Fifty percent of adults regularly drink coffee. Consumers in the United States spend billions of dollars on coffee annually. Soft drinks also generate billions of dollars in revenue. In Cedar City alone, there are ten coffee-based stores and six soda-based stores. Furthermore, eight of the top ten most popular sodas are caffeinated. The substantial economic benefit from the caffeine industry is believed to be the main reason that caffeine use is not regulated. Caffeine levels in foods are not restricted by the FDA. The FDA previously tried to limit synthetic caffeine levels but received great opposition as it would decrease soda profits. Caffeine intake should be monitored as negative side effects following prolonged caffeine use include insomnia, increased anxiety levels, and gastrointestinal problems. 

Another commonly used drug is tobacco. Tobacco use became popularized because it was a symbol of wealth. Today, there are about six million tons of tobacco harvested each year.  Tobacco leaves are dried and then smoked, releasing nicotine. Nicotine is an extremely addictive chemical. Nicotine binds to nicotinic acetylcholine receptors and acts as a stimulant, increasing dopamine and epinephrine release. Oddly enough, as more nicotine is consumed its effects slowly shift from stimulating to sedating. According to the world health organization, tobacco can kill up to half of its users. In 2020, they found that twenty-two percent of the global population used tobacco. Unlike caffeine which has significant economic benefits, tobacco has a large economic cost. The use of tobacco leads to 200 billion dollars of economic damages annually. Some smokers spend up to a thousand dollars each year on tobacco products. Tobacco is also dangerous because it can be a gateway drug.

Untreated diseases of the brain can have immense economic consequences. Those suffering from mental illness are less like to complete school and less likely to maintain a job. One study from Denmark showed that treatment of mental illness directly correlates with a decrease in economic losses for families. In the United States, the federal government budgets some money for treating mental illness. There are two programs that this money funds. The first is Medicaid. In 2020, 70 billion dollars from Medicaid went to treating mental illnesses. Social security disability insurance also helps treat mental illness. 29% of those receiving SSDI have some mental illness. This is about two and a half million people. More people receive SSDI for treatment of mental illness than those who need it due to injuries, cancer, circulatory problem, and nervous system issues, combined.

The Brain

 Connor Holyoak

Biol 4500

Curated Paper 2

The Brain

The brain is a highly complex network of neuron cell bodies and axons which interact with each other in order to relay information and instruction for the rest of our body. A single neuron may be involved with a specific function in the body. Neurons are involved with sensory function, motor function, and integration. This means that there are neurons responsible for all our senses including touch, smell, sight, pain, pressure, and temperature. These neurons usually travel from the area of sensation to the brain or spinal cord where they relay their gathered information to integral neurons using chemical signals. These integral neurons are responsible for processing the information that comes through in order to provide actions to react with the given stimulus. They then send their signals to motor neurons in order to react to the stimulus. The fascinating part of this process is how quickly the brain is able to receive and process information. All of this takes place in a small fraction of a second. Because of the complexity of the brain and its functions, there are many ways that its processes can become altered. 

The brain is subject to unwanted changes due to the environment, genetics, and mutations. These can result in a wide variety of symptoms and defects based on the area of damage or alteration. There are several disorders such as Huntington's disease, multiple sclerosis, and parkinsons disease that have relatively misunderstood causes but all result in defects in the brain that cause a lack of motor function or can alter emotions. Although these diseases are all similar in symptoms, the anatomy of the diseases are very different. Multiple sclerosis involves the demyelination of schwann cells in the spinal cord. Huntington’s disease is caused by a mutation in our genome. It is difficult to locate and treat these diseases because they alter the genome. 

There are also diseases that have a clear cause like traumatic brain injuries. After a traumatic event the brain can sustain damage which leads to various symptoms depending on the area and severity of the damage. Damage to the frontal lobe might affect higher thought and movement while damage to the temporal lobe might affect memory and sensory information. There are other brain diseases that can affect mood or personality like obsessive compulsive disorder or anxiety. It is more difficult to trace the cause of these diseases because they are usually caused by an alteration in the genome. These can alter the brain’s emotions in various ways. Obsessive compulsive disorder will cause an obsession over a single thought. Depression and anxiety will often cause sadness that exceeds the normal sadness in a situation. Anxiety can build when these emotions run high. There are even diseases like multiple personality disorder that can cause the individual to express the personalities of more than one individual. These disorders can be very dangerous to the individual and even at times to others around them. I could go on for hours discussing other known brain disorders with various symptoms, however, the important subject here is how the brain should function and how small changes can affect it. 

Again we need to touch on the idea of ayurveda. The brain has an extremely complex control over the chemicals that surround it and the chemicals that are passed between neurons. In fact the function of neurons is directly related to the chemicals that they interact with. They use changes in pH due to channel openings in order to release neurotransmitters in order to signal the next neuron to open its ion channels. This process is complex but very controlled. A change in pH could cause the neuron to remain on or off indefinitely. A change in the genetic makeup of a neuron could be equally devastating to the neuron. It could result in a completely useless cell, unable to receive or transmit signals to other neurons. And these changes can be passed on to other cells which could result in a high number of useless cells. It is very important therefore, for our brain to regulate the balance that keeps our cells functioning properly.

The brain and what can affect it

 Catherine Valeo 

Biology of Disease 

Dr. Karpel 

6/21/22 

The Brain And What Affects It

The human body is made up of many intricate systems that all work together to make it possible for people to function properly, and when these systems do function right, ideally live long active lives.  Each part of the body is important for carrying out various internal and external tasks, but perhaps the most important of these parts is the brain, the control center of the body.  We want to do what we can to keep our brains healthy and functioning to the fullest capacity we can, but while the brain is incredibly important, it is also very delicate.  There are a lot of things that can put the brain at risk, including head trauma, drug use, missing out on sleep, and daily habits that we may not even realize relate to our brains, which then puts them at risk.  Because the brain is so delicate, but crucial to living, there has been a lot of research and funding put into keeping the brain functioning at tip top conditioning, and understanding what reasons it might not be.

One of the most common occurrences that affect human brains are traumatic brain injuries, or, TBI’s.  A TBI is an injury to the brain that affects its function, these can be caused by a bump to the head or some kind of penetrating injury.  TBI’s are broken down into three classes, moderate, mild, and severe.  What may come as a surprise is that a concussion is considered a TBI, even though concussions are fairly common (Get the facts, CDC).  In fact, TBI’s are “a leading cause of death among children and young adults in the United States.  Each year an estimated 1.5 million Americans sustain a TBI” (Report to congress, CDC).  Of these 1.5 million, 50,000 of them will die due to their injuries, and up to 90,000 will experience long term disability stemming from the injury.  TBI’s can be caused by a number of things, most commonly including motor vehicle accidents, but they are also common in contact sports, and can be caused by something as seemingly simple as a fall. 

TBI’s are costly, especially if they are long term TBI’s.  In a study comparing the costs of a TBI between New Zealand and the US between 2010 and 2011,  it was found that a mild TBI cost the person roughly 5,500$ in one year alone.  However, moderate to severe cases in the US cost the person up to over 65,000$ in one year.  The researchers estimated that the total lifetime cost of all TBI survivors in 2010 was 146.4 million, but they projected that by 2020 that cost would reach 177.1 million in the US.  While for some, 5,500$ may not seem like much, that number is a lot for others, and when spread out over an entire lifetime, plus inflation/changing costs, these factors have likely just made that number go up.  Having a mild TBI could be detrimental to someone’s health and their finances.  That’s not even taking into account the cost of a moderate to severe TBI, which is significantly more costly and ultimately a cost that may be inaccessible for many people.    

Beyond TBI’s, there are many things that can affect the brain, for example, autism.  Autism is a common neurological development disorder which affects 1 in 44 children in the U.S. (Autism speaks), and impacts interactions and behaviors.  Autism can be diagnosed as early as 18 month, but the older the child gets, the more reliable the test results are.  There has been a lot of research done on autism, but less research on the development of autism in the adolescent brain.  However, a study done by Eric Courchesne found that during the first two years of autistic children’s lives, they experience considerable overgrowth in the brain, then between the ages of 2 and 4 brain development either slows down or stops entirely.  This hypergrowth then sudden slowing may disrupt brain signaling, playing into the development of autism (Courchesne, E., 2004).  Autism has considerable economic costs as well, it’s estimated that the medical costs of a child with autism are up to 6.2 times greater than those without, and by 2025, care for adults with autism will be a 461 billion dollar industry (Autism Speaks).  

Autism is congenital, and TBI’s often happen by chance, but there are certain intentional behaviors that put the brain at risk of harm, like drug use.  When the word drug comes up, your mind might automatically jump to things like cocaine or heroin, but one of the most common, accessible, and addictive drugs is alcohol.  Alcohol is especially damaging to the adolescent brain.  When people are growing up, their brains are growing too, this includes building architecture, changes in neurochemistry occuring, and tissue composition changing.  Alcohol, a drink made from sugar fermentation, disrupts all of these processes.  It particularly affects the prefrontal lobe, making for more impulsive decisions, and hinders neuromaturation, including brain volume, structure, and neurochemistry.  Those with early substance abuse problems, which is common in adolescents because of an encouraged binge drinking behavior, are more likely to continue use into adulthood.  Adolescents are also more at risk for behaviors like aggressivity, dangerous driving, and are likely to abuse more substances.  Cognitively, adolescents who drink are more prone to dimunitions in attention span, visuospatial function, memory recall and general learning of both verbal and nonverbal information (Bava, S., Tapert, S. F., 2010).  

While alcohol use has heavy cognitive and developmental costs, it also comes with financial cost.  There are a lot of factors that go into the financial cost of alcohol, including law enforcement involvement in situations pertaining to alcohol, doctor visits, vehicle crashes, and workplace productivity.  In 2010 the cost was a quarter trillion dollars for the U.S., and even in a state with strict alcohol laws, like Utah, the yearly cost was about 1.7 billion dollars.  This average national cost averages out to roughly 807$ per person spent in one year on alcohol, with binge drinking making up for 77% of that cost (Excessive Drinking, CDC). 

It is important to care for our brains, and that can be done by limiting or avoiding substances that will hurt them, like alcohol, but also by making sure to take care of our bodies as well.  One thing that I think is particularly interesting is the effects that eating disorders can have on the brain.  Anorexia nervosa, for example, has clear effects.  There was an experiment where two groups were faced with both verbal and nonverval tasks.  One group was composed of participants with anorexia, the other was composed of participants who did not.  The researchers found a clear distinction between the two groups, in that the participants struggling with anorexia had considerable latencies in reaction and recall when faced with both the verbal and non verbal tasks, but the other participant group did not.  They concluded that anorexia nervosa was negatively impacting cognitive function, and it was causing long term impacts as well.  The participants with anorexia nervosa were brought back after they had been in treatment, and were deemed to be a healthy weight and retested.  However, when tested, they were still displaying similar recall latencies, indicating that the effects of their condition on the brain were long term, even though their bodies were considered recovered (B, S. J., et al., 1997). 

As I said at the beginning, the brain is a powerful control center, but ultimately it is also very delicate.  Great care should be taken in making sure that the brain stays safe.  For congenital conditions that affect the brain there should be continued research going into the development of these conditions, and what can be done to help cognitive function in those cases.  Treating the body with care will also protect the brain, like not picking up alcohol habits or other drug habits knowing that they can cause harm, or not putting ourselves into dangerous situations unnecessarily.  Our bodies are a machine, damage or change to one part can seriously affect another.  So in our day to day lives, it is important that we think about our actions and how certain behaviors, while appealing in the moment, may have more serious effects than we realize.

Sources 

“Alcohol and Depression.” Alcohol Rehab Guide, 24 Feb. 2022, https://www.alcoholrehabguide.org/resources/dual-diagnosis/alcohol-and-depression/#:~:text=Abuse%20And%20Depression-,Individuals%20who%20suffer%20from%20depression%20are%20more%20likely%20to%20abuse,feelings%20of%20sadness%20and%20hopelessness. 

“Autism Statistics and Facts.” Autism Speaks, https://www.autismspeaks.org/autism-statistics-asd#:~:text=Autism%20Prevalence,)%2C%20according%20to%202018%20data.&text=Boys%20are%20four%20times%20more,diagnosed%20with%20autism%20than%20girls. 

Bava, Sunita, and Susan F. Tapert. "Adolescent brain development and the risk for alcohol and other drug problems." Neuropsychology review 20.4 (2010): 398-413

Bradley, Susan J., et al. "Assessment of brain function in adolescent anorexia nervosa before and after weight gain." Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology 19.1 (1997): 20-33.

Courchesne, Eric. "Brain development in autism: early overgrowth followed by premature arrest of growth." Mental retardation and developmental disabilities research reviews 10.2 (2004): 106-111.

“Excessive Drinking Is Draining the U.S. Economy.” Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 14 Apr. 2022, https://www.cdc.gov/alcohol/features/excessive-drinking.html. 

“Get the Facts about TBI.” Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 21 Mar. 2022, https://www.cdc.gov/traumaticbraininjury/get_the_facts.html#:~:text=TBI%20is%20a%20major%20cause%20of%20death%20and%20disability&text=There%20were%20over%2064%2C000%20TBI,the%20United%20States%20in%202020.&text=That's%20about%20176%20TBI%2Drelated,of%20people%20of%20all%20ages. 

“Report to Congress: Traumatic Brain Injury in the United States.” Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 22 Jan. 2016, https://www.cdc.gov/traumaticbraininjury/pubs/tbi_report_to_congress.html#:~:text=Traumatic%20brain%20injury%20(TBI)%20is,people%20are%20hospitalized%20and%20survive. 

Te Ao, Braden, et al. "Cost of traumatic brain injury in New Zealand: evidence from a population-based study." Neurology 83.18 (2014): 1645-1652.

  

Connection between the Brain and Drugs

The brain, it is a very complex and fascinating organ where there are many different concepts that we have yet to discover. There are countless functions that are related back to the brain. Our nervous system also splits off into two different groups: the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system. This is how our cells communicate with each other based on the body’s conditions and needs in order to maintain its balance for homeostasis again. It's very interesting to see how different parts of the brain all have a specific function. I find the brain intriguing to learn about as well because each structure has its own unique purpose that makes sense to it and every human function is found within the brain so it truly is the control center from decision making, and personality to even your breathing rhythm. There are even specialized disciplines that are geared toward the study of the brain aspects such as psychology, etc. It is also very different for everyone on how they comprehend different things and gain skills through their best learning techniques. However, it is good that there are the basics of how each section of the brain does have a normal type of function that is similar for everyone. It's just based on a deeper understanding level that brings in perspectives so that is what separates people from one another because we will take information differently. 

    Along with the amazing functions of the brain, there are complications that are way more intense as well. There are a variety of brain diseases that can be categorized into neurological, personality, developmental, prions, etc, and many other types. These are all pretty serious varying on each person and how it affects them and how they manage it as well along with any other type of disease as well. It can affect many areas of people whether it expresses the type of disease genetically or in physical characteristics. Prions are a very interesting one though because it is about proteins that are from eating infected meat products and that cause the brain to fold abnormally and that leads to different diseases. That raises a question though of why certain things can be consumed and why. It is very important to understand human nutrition and each food component/makeup because from there you can study the structure and the components that make up certain types of food and why it's good or bad. In addition to diseases, I find that diseases and conditions such as dementia are kind of weird because they don’t appear or take effect until a certain age so it would be cool to learn about how our body keeps that specific gene that gets triggered at the right time and gets passed down in generations. Through the questions and misconceptions, scientists are constantly working and researching to learn and explore more about the brain in order to grow and adapt the new knowledge to the complications we face.

    With the complex pathways within our bodies, it is also important to understand which way those things will flow. This is because everything is interconnected in our body since one thing relies on other factors in order to carry out the necessary tasks that we need. With each pathway, it can become inhibited or excited and other responses are based on what our body has as a resource to utilize and carry out the functions in our body. So there are ways to alter these types of pathways in our favor through the introduction of drugs. Drugs are small molecules/compounds that are able to target specific goals that we desire to be carried out in order to ease our pain, suffering, and symptoms of a particular disease or illness. Drugs are also consumed in many different ways such as medications, pills, inhaling, and injections intravenously which all affect how fast drugs will reach the bloodstream and will show how the drug interferes and influences a person’s behavior, thoughts, and response. By altering different components of a molecule or compound, we are able to have the opposite effect of what it would have usually done by the body. 

    So the compounds, molecules, and other elements' properties, there are ways to classify and look at different things of the chemistry within it. This is because different responses are caused just based on the structure itself. So ways that it can be classified as cis/trans, E/Z, meso, R/S, enantiomers, diastereomers, and even more specifically: anomers and epimers, etc. These are solely just based on which functional groups of priority are positioned where and have a different type of reaction within it if it were this type of conformation. It is that certain specific types of elements that make up compounds or molecules will also play a big role in how they will react with other elements. So it is important to study the conformation and structure of different compounds in order to predict how they would react in our bodies with the chemicals already present there. 

    Through many studies, there have been scans and results of how people have responded to certain types of drugs. So that was interesting but needs to be more regulation and types of enforcement to keep people who do not have medical reasons for different types of drugs. Each prescription is made specifically for that person and their needs so it is hard to give one medication to cure all. There have been natural products of drug discovery which is an interesting read. It is because there are different alternative ways that use a holistic approach to healing. There is a lot more to be explored and to be studied as well because humans will react to different things differently and there are just many variables that create complexity to the problem. So there will need to be more development and studies to show how the future of the pharmacological world will improve and innovate to adapt to the world we live in.

Intricate Workings of the Brain

 

The Brain

          Two lobes of wrinkled mass that is the main tool humans used in order to get to the top of the food chain. It requires a certain amount of sugar, and if it does not get that certain amount of sugar then it will lapse into basically conservation mode making it hard to think. The brain is the most intricate tool that humans have ever been able to find, but it is extremely vulnerable. When damaged it swells to reduce damage that has been caused. Before modern medicine was created this swelling would more likely than not contribute to the death of the individual. When these brain injuries happen with the majority of them being caused by motor accidents, it can lead to a strong change in the personality of the person. Genetics play an important role as well because when it comes to explaining certain disorders people suffer such as autism or borderline personality disorders have certain genes that increase potential side effects.

            These personality changes can range from either having a stronger disposition to anger and rage, or it could be that the person will laugh at the most inappropriate times as if all social cues have been lost to them. According to one of the papers brain injuries can be expected to effect up to 80 percent of people, and they will experience some change in their personality. This change could be minor or major but some change will show itself most likely. When we look at ways to treat these types of disorder, and it seems like a good course of action is first establishing the behavior that has change. After this has been discovered, tell the patient what is believed to happened due to the incident. This will allow them to become aware of the behavior, and it will allow them attempts to stop or mitigate it. One reason that TBI or traumatic brain injury has come to light in the recent years is mostly because of professional football players that have suffered concussions through their career of high school, college, and the NFL. These repeated concussions have caused multiple injuries to the brain of a decades. These stacking slams will cause the brain to heal differently each time. One of the papers we read talked about the evolution of concussion protocol over the past decades. It has gotten significantly better compared to the early 90’s of concussion protocol in an attempt to let the brain fully heal before getting back on the field. For example, just this last year a known Denver Broncos super star Demaryius Thomson died of a seizure in his home. It was confirmed post-mortem that he was suffering from Stage 2 CTE which could have either been the reason that he suffered from the seizure that led to his death. Many more examples of players confirmed after death to have suffered from CTE, and this begs the question of are these players in total control of their actions. A lot of former players show increased signs of aggression and violence after the league that gets them in trouble with the law. I am not excusing their behavior because some of the cases are domestic abuse and extreme cases of battery, but I do believe that an awareness of these players suffering from a greater likely hood of personality change should come to light.

            Genetics play a significant role in the development of certain diseases. When we look at borderline personality disorders, we can see that like one of the papers mentioned said that the hippocampus is affected by stress. Some people have disposition to dealing with stress badly which could increase the amount effected. These genes can lead to a increase amount of affected brain disorders, but the brain is also malleable. It can be shaped and formed at an early age and into the early twenties. This means that environment plays just as large a part in is these diseases such a personality disorders can take root with the changing of the brain.  Genetics and environment are two sides of the same coin when it comes to development of the brain, and it leads us to believe that some people have greater risks to develop a disease if it runs in their blood line. For example, Dementia and Alzheimer’s are two diseases that have been linked to the genetic linage. People that have parents or grandparents with Alzheimer’s are more likely to develop the disease. I believe that this is cause most of genes passed from mothers and fathers are the baseline for creating proteins and running systems. For example, most people that develop Alzheimer’s have things called plaque which are a protein needed for neurons function. However, plaque is caused by the over production of this protein leading to people developing lesion on the brain limiting neuron function. This means that the genetic code given to you through your parents cross matching could potentially carry the same code that over makes this protein.

    Nature vs Nurture is a very important concept when it comes to the brain and it's development. This means that even though genetically you are built to be a certain way, the way you are raised can change the very genetic makeup of a human. When puppies are raised during their childhood, and a mother licks these puppies and cleans them, it will lead to those puppies developing a greater maternal and paternal attitude later in life. When the brain is first developing between birth and the first 3 years of a human life, it creates more synapses than it needs. However, synapses that are used constantly are strengthen and those that are left alone wither and die. This means that those first couple years are so important to have a base line of those brain connections that will be carried into adult life.

    In conclusion, the brain is probably one of the most complicated things on earth. Humans have used it to become the strongest species on the earth, and using it to shape the very environment that is around us. This complicated organ the rules the very being of us has been is so powerfully built, but it is at the very mercy of the surroundings. The power of disease and genetics play a huge role in the brain, but even greater than that it has been shown how someone grows up has just as large an impact on it. All of these things have a large impact on the development of the brain, and exactly how disease might affect a person. 

References

Dowling, John E. The great brain debate: nature or nurture?. Vol. 15. Princeton University Press, 2011.

Gable, Sara. “Nature, Nurture and Early Brain Development.” University of Missouri Extension, University of Missouri, https://extension.missouri.edu/publications/gh6115.

Weaver, Ian CG. "Integrating early life experience, gene expression, brain development, and emergent phenotypes: unraveling the thread of nature via nurture." Advances in Genetics 86 (2014): 277-307.