Brain and Drugs

 

            One of the more profound realizations that came to me while journaling for this paper was that addiction is classified as a disease. Whatever form the addiction takes, it affects their body and brain and rewires the internal chemistry, and behavior is changed. Addiction isn’t just behavior problems, nor is it just the result of bad choices. It is so much more and can be studied from entirely new angles because of this.

            This can change the way we look at drug addictions. Learning about how the drugs react with our brain and the statistics of addictions really show that the stigma against drug addicts isn’t fair to them. This is something that I haven’t been exposed to or understood before. We are taught that drugs are bad and not to do them, but thousands and thousands are dying each year to them. It really is an enormous issue right now in our world with no sure solution. Thousands upon thousands of deaths per year are due to various drug abuses. So many other issues can be linked to drug use as well, so the full effects may not be fully realized. This is just one of the many ways our brain can be negatively affected.

            Another way is traumatic brain injuries. Growing up, I wanted to play football. All my friends played, and I think I would have enjoyed it and excelled. But my parents didn't like the idea of that, so I was stuck with baseball. Which is fine to me now. It seems that recently there have been numerous scary head injuries in college and professional football. I see that stuff on TV and am glad that I didn't play football. I have only had a couple bangs to the head, and seeing this research makes me reflect on how dangerous contact sports are. To have so many injuries that your brain function becomes impaired is a very unsettling thought. A study published in the Journal of the American Medical Association found some unsettling new discoveries about the link between brain injury and CTE.

            “In the new study, published in the Journal of the American Medical Association, researchers looked at the brains of 202 deceased people who had played football at various levels, from high school to the NFL. (The brains had been donated to a brain bank at Boston University for further study.) The researchers analyzed the brains for signs of CTE and also spoke to family members about the players’ histories. They diagnosed CTE in 87% of the players. Among the 111 NFL players, 99% had CTE” (Sifferlin 2017). They also found that the severity of the disease’s symptoms progressed the longer the person had played football.

            Finally, some medical disorders can affect the brain. Multiple Sclerosis is one that comes to mind immediately. My mom was diagnosed with it when I was younger and although I was too young to understand, I remember that it was a time of extreme anxiety for my parents. I am not sure how her treatments were, what her doctors said, or even how she really felt about her situation. A couple of years ago she was told that her initial diagnosis was false and that she didn't have MS. I always thought it was so odd, but it turns out that researchers estimate that 20% of those with MS in the United States are misdiagnosed. MS can be very damaging to the brain because the immune system attacks the myelin sheaths of the central nervous system. This can cause memory problems, fatigue, lack in concentration, and even paralysis in some cases.

            Alzheimer’s disease is another common one we see today affecting brain function.

It is crazy to see both the physical evidence from microscope slides of how damaging Alzheimer's Disease can be and seeing the before and after of someone affected, seeing the degradation of their capabilities and their personality especially. Especially in close family members, like grandparents who were intellectual behemoths but are reduced to a shell of their former state.

            Seeing the data, we can see that our brain is one of the most delicate and amazing structures in our body. Learning about how and why it is affected by drugs and injury can help in the prevention and treatment of those afflicted.

References

Sifferlin, A. (2017, July 25). Brain injury: CTE found in 87% of football players' brains. Time. Retrieved from https://time.com/4871597/degenerative-brain-disease-cte-football/ 

Understanding MS. National Multiple Sclerosis Society. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.nationalmssociety.org/What-is-MS/MS-FAQ-s#siteExitModal 

The Human Brain: A Delicate Balance Interrupted by Drugs and Injury

As we have discussed in class over the course of the semester, the human body is compiled of a very intricate balance of our physical, mental, emotional, and spiritual health… which we can more easily summarize as the holistic term of “ayurveda”. Many people often think of this balance as homeostasis, and while this is important, this term refers to the balance that our physical well-being is achieved by. In order to fully discuss ayurveda and the holistic balance of one’s well-being, we must understand the location physical location within the body where our mental, emotional, and spiritual components reside… which is the brain.

The human brain is one of the most, if not the most, important organ within our body. The structures located within the brain are responsible for our motor functions, memory, personality, emotions, thought processing, etc. To add to the complexity of the brain, there are approximately 100 billion neurons all communicating with one another which allow our body to accomplish the incredible movements and functions that it does. The brain is the most important organ that we have, and without it, our heart would be unable to beat, our lungs would be unable to provide oxygen to our blood, we would be unable to accomplish metabolic processes, etc. Despite its importance and the immense workload that this organ carries, our understanding of the brain is surprisingly limited and continually growing.

With the brain being responsible for basically every single process that happens in the body, the balance that it must maintain is vital. The brain, despite its relatively small size, uses the largest amount of oxygen, calories, nutrients, etc. of any organ in the body. As such, if anything disrupts the supply chain, being the bloodstream, many issues can occur. Another scenario is if something disrupts the complex chemical and electrical signaling that occurs within the brain, instructing the rest of the body as to what needs to occur. And completely different from these two issues, is that of physical trauma to the brain, which brings its own host of difficulties and disruptions. While the brain is capable of withstanding a decent amount of disruption to its processes, the balance that it must maintain through its various biochemical processes is relatively delicate.

            The most fascinating and innovative discoveries about the human brain have seemingly come at the expense of individuals. One of the driving cases that spurred neuroscience into the forefront was that of Phineas Gage, with one of the most fascinating, yet traumatic medical cases still to this date. Phineas Gage was the foreman of a railroad crew who was working in Vermont. On a seemingly normal day, he was tamping powder into a hole, so that rock could be removed, and a railroad built in its place. While tamping, the powder ignited and sent his tamping bar through his left cheek, through his frontal lobe and skull, and was found some distance away. Despite this traumatic injury, Gage was conscious and got himself back to town to be seen by a doctor. While this injury and case ultimately taught us that the frontal lobe and prefrontal cortex are responsible for personality, the processing of emotional matters, decision-making, etc., it also shows us the resiliency of the human body to trauma… and how the brain had to adjust.

            One way of “restoring” the wholesome, ayurvedic balance of the brain after an injury such as this (or any brain injury for that matter) is through a process called neuroplasticity. Neuroplasticity is the ability of the brain to create, “re-map”, and “re-wire” its neural pathways processes following injury or after learning. This is done to create more efficient and total pathways (in learning) and to reattach a “lost network” to the rest of the brain (which can be the case in a physical brain injury). This helps restore the functions that can be separated from the brain, especially in an injury such as that which occurred in the case of Phineas Gage. For example, Gage may have had a change in personality and become unable to work on the railroad, but after a few years he made his way to Chile to drive stagecoaches. This shows the incredible healing ability of the brain, as shortly after that horrific injury, Gage began working a job that requires high levels of planning, thought, multitasking, etc. Neuroplasticity shows us just how important maintaining that state of balance is, as it will completely rewire itself in order to restore a system of balance.

            With the brain being composed of so many structures, pathways, chemicals, etc. it is no surprise that physical injuries (as discussed above) cause changes. On the other hand, however, when the hormones, neurotransmitters, electrical signals, etc. are interrupted/changes, we see immense changes to a person’s holistic self as well. The brain houses the controls for mental, emotional, spiritual, and physical health and well-being of the entire organism. External stimuli and components play an important role in our brain’s function and development of these different areas of health. External stimuli cause “shifts” in these areas, which can be either good or bad, and the brain has the means to “correct” these changes as needed. This being said, external stimuli presented too often or in large amounts can cause difficult to change, or even irreversible, damage to the delicate balance that our body is held to.

            Of the most common and prolific external stimuli on the brain is that of drugs, both those that are deemed prescription (legal) and recreational drugs (most of which are illegal). Drugs are small molecules introduced into the body that resemble the structure of biological chemicals produced by the body. Both the drugs and self-made molecules can bind specific receptors and sites on cells within the body, allowing for certain drugs to activate different pathways in the body. There are multiple different ways that drugs can be introduced into the body, with each route varying in: their effectiveness, duration, metabolism, etc. Some of these routes include intravenous, intramuscular, subcutaneous, oral, intranasal, and inhaled (among others).

Drug use makes both anatomical and physiological changes in the brain, which impacts a person in a holistic manner. Additionally, drug addiction further complicates manners after prolonged, and increased, drug use. Changes to important brain locations, such as the prefrontal cortex, often occur with drug use. This occurs as drugs cause changes to the neural pathways found within the body, impacting neurotransmitters and signals sent by the brain. Drugs “hardwire” the brain, as drug use immediately increases dopamine levels within the brain. As drug use is prolonged, the amount of dopamine produced by the brain, and the effectiveness of our natural dopamine levels on the brain, decreases. This causes the brain/individual to believe that drugs are required for survival. Not only this, but drugs cause damage to our memory (via hippocampus damage), emotions, and decision-making areas of the brain. As an individual becomes tolerant to the “desired effects” of a drug, they must use an increased amount (or higher concentration) in order to have the same effect as before. As individuals use more drugs, they can make the mistake of using an excessive amount, which could lead to overdosing and even death.

Changes in neurotransmitter and/or hormone levels and effectiveness in the body can quickly lead to imbalances that affect a person physically, mentally, emotionally, and spiritually. As such, practices such as exercise, social interaction, yoga/meditation/prayer, etc. are things that individuals can do in order to help maintain this balance. This is also where prescription drugs and medical treatments come into scene. Drugs (even illegal ones), when used under the proper supervision and guidance, can be used to restore balance and ayurveda in an individual. Ibuprofen, acetaminophen, birth control, anti-depressants, anti-anxiety, vitamins, antihistamines, cold medicines, etc. are all everyday drugs that are used in order to help maintain the balance that allows us to live our lives. There are many medical instances in which illegal drugs can be used by healthcare providers in order to alleviate and help treat medical issues (cocaine for nosebleeds, ketamine for depression, marijuana for chronic pain, etc.). The reason that many of these drugs are even considered illegal is because they should not be used without evaluation or under the supervision of a healthcare professional. However, when they are used appropriately, illnesses and diseases can be treated (and in some instances cured) through the use of drugs and their ability to alter the physical and chemical aspects of the brain.

The state and balance of the brain is vital to the overall well-being of the individual. When the brain is in a state of balance, our relationships, emotions, mental facilities, and physical health are all in a much healthier state. It is when imbalances occur (whether by injury, changes in neurotransmitters, drugs, or even everyday events) that we see areas of our well-being begin to crumble. As mentioned above, there are many failsafe mechanisms in place by the brain and body to help ward these unwanted issues away, however, sometimes we need external assistance in order to restore ayurveda. Some assistance may come in the form of therapy/counseling, physical activities, mental exercises, etc. which shows the importance of these different activities in our lives. Maintaining each of these pillars of health is crucial, as we cannot disregard one area of our health and expect the rest to stand sturdy.

 

The Impact of the Brain

     Our brain has about 100 billion neurons that allow many networks and connections within the brain, making its storage capacity virtually unlimited. The brain is a remarkable and complex organ in our bodies. It holds great importance regarding our body communicating and reacting to the external environment. There are many factors that could potentially damage the brain. For example, drugs, infections, genetic disorders, brain injuries, and many other lifestyle factors. Because there is much of the brain that has not been studied, we don’t know all of the potential causes of certain diseases or disorders and the risks that could occur. What we do know is that these illnesses impact society from the social misconceptions that are placed upon people who have these issues to the way we treat them.  Brain diseases could really impact different aspects of someone’s life. 

    To start off, each part of the brain has different roles that allow us to function and comprehend different situations. For example, the cerebrum initiates and coordinates movement. It is also separated into different lobes that enable speech, judgment, problem-solving, emotions, vision, touch, and other senses. There is also the cerebellum which is able to coordinate voluntary muscle movements and maintain posture, balance, and equilibrium. There have been new studies that explore the cerebellum’s roles in emotions and social behavior, as well as the possibility of involvement in addiction, autism, and schizophrenia. The last part is the brainstem which connects the cerebrum with the spinal cord. It is divided into three sections: the midbrain, pons, and medulla. The midbrain has a span of different neuron clusters and pathways that help with hearing and movement to calculate responses and environmental changes. The pons is able to do many activities such as chewing, blinking, focusing, and facial expressions. Lastly, the medulla is at the bottom of the brainstem and is essential for survival. It is able to regulate many bodily activities, such as heart rhythm, breathing, blood flow, and oxygen and carbon dioxide levels. The medulla also produces reflexive activities such as sneezing, vomiting, and swallowing. With a healthy brain, our body is capable of doing many different functions. 

The way our brain and body perform could be negatively impacted by different factors. These factors could lead to serious diseases that could change someone’s life drastically. As of now, about 300 mental illnesses have been identified. Some factors that could lead to these illnesses are genetic disorders, infections, congenital problems, and other health/lifestyle factors. Unfortunately, some of these factors are unpreventable and can occur at different stages of an individual's life. One of the neurological disorders that I found interest in was Parkinson’s disease. In Parkinson’s, the midbrain’s substantia nigra, a critical region for dopamine production, is affected. This area enables movement and coordination. Because of the lack of dopamine, people with Parkinson’s experience tremors, difficulty walking, and a sense of slowness. They also experience “on” and “off” periods where the medication works really well, however, the body ends up getting used to the medication and the symptoms slowly begin to creep back in. Most neurological diseases could lead to dementia. This disease deteriorates intellectual abilities such as memory, judgment, concentration, and emotional instability. One of the most common forms of dementia is Alzheimer's disease. Although we have millions of  neurons that can combine to one another, they can become damaged and stop working which significantly affects memory. The cause of this disease is still not known because of its different variations however, it can be inheritable and external factors could also increase the chances of getting the disease. 

    Alzheimer's disease really hits home for me because I used to work as a certified nurse assistant(CNA) in the memory care units of assisted living homes. I worked with dementia patients for five years and although it filled me with joy being able to interact and build relationships with the patients, it was not always easy. Every day was a new experience dealing with the patient's moods and irrational behaviors. There were some patients that thought they lived in a different time period. Some of them couldn’t remember whether their spouses had passed away or not, which would lead me to say a white lie once in a while. Some of them would constantly remember and ask about their families, which would make them really upset. Some patients would have outbursts or cry because they would forget where they were and what CNAs were there to do. Some had even lost the capability of eating on their own or going to the bathroom on their own. It was definitely a challenge because each dementia patient is different. Some of them were on a more severe level of Alzheimer’s which meant they needed extra care and patience when it came to doing simple daily activities. Alzheimer's is a really tough disease because it really turns a person's mind into one of a child again. The individuals are not themselves anymore because their brains are not properly working, and they don’t retain any information. It was heartbreaking to see that many of them lived a life of confusion. Each day was a question of where am I? And as much as I wanted to explain and answer their questions, the next day would be the same thing all over again.                        

Other types of disorders that occur in the brain are schizophrenia, multiple personality disorder, depression, and obsessive-compulsive disorder. These disorders involve mood and personality and could develop due to different factors such as life experiences, trauma, genetic inheritance, and brain injury. One major cause that I would like to focus on is trauma. Researchers believe that early trauma can increase hyperactivity in the amygdala, which is the emotional and survival center. It can also reduce activity in the hippocampus which helps distinguish between the past and present. Unfortunately, trauma can cause your brain to remain in a state of survival mode and strong emotional reactivity. I think this is an important factor to know because many people deal with mental disorders and are not well understood. There are many disadvantages when it comes to having mental disorders because it affects someone's social life and they have a harder time dealing with certain experiences. It is hard for someone to recover from a traumatic experience which is why physicians are dealing with neuroplasticity or finding a way for the brain to form new connections in order to reverse some of the trauma’s effects. This is something that I have learned more about due to my job. I work at a treatment center for girls. Many of these girls have dealt with a lot of trauma in their life and it has definitely impacted the way they view and handle life situations. Some of them have dealt with physical or mental abuse or have experienced rough moments in their life such as the death of a parent or close family member. Many of the girls have also dealt with suicidal thoughts, drug and alcohol abuse, and unhealthy relationships. One of the ways the girls receive help is through therapy which includes brainspotting. I had never heard of brainspotting before until I started working there. Brainspotting is a new type of therapy that is able to reveal a client's unprocessed trauma through specific eye positions that link to their own “brain spot.” In each brain spot, there are thoughts and opinions that are kept there and they're able to be accessed and processed. I think that although this therapy is still somewhat new it can be very helpful for individuals to understand some of the reasons why they have their traumas and negative emotions. Some people who have had rough life situations decide to block those experiences and the feelings that came along with it because they don't want to remember the experience. However, this therapy will help them analyze these deep feelings so that it can help them overcome the feelings and possibly help with their mental disorder. The goal is for individuals to potentially overcome and heal from their mental disorders like anxiety and depression. I think that this type of therapy should be used because it can significantly improve someone’s life and I can see that many girls that graduate from the program, leave with a better mindset, better relationships, and with better decision-making skills. 

When it comes to drugs and their impact on the brain, there has always been a social stigma against them. People usually associate the word “drug” with something bad such as leading to violence or addiction. Drugs affect our brains in different ways. Some disrupt the communication between neurons in the brain, while others can help better communication in the pathways. Each class of drugs interacts with the brain differently therefore also altering a person’s behavior and mood. Each drug has a specific chemical composition which serves as a key to unlocking the barrier in the brain. Neurotransmitters also play a big role in inhibiting or exciting a signal which spreads across the neuron networks in the brain. This signal will allow the body to function depending on what we need. For example, the neurotransmitter serotonin helps regulate behavior, body temperature, digestive process, breathing, and more. Drugs can highly impact the levels of different neurotransmitters. All hallucinogenic drugs block the release of serotonin which allow the regulation of mood and impulsivity. Other factors such as perception and learning can also be affected. This is why some drugs are illegal. If they are used often, they can eventually change and rewire the brain; this could potentially affect the way a person thinks, makes decisions, and their memory. 

One of the common reasons why drugs are seen as dangerous is the potential to become addictive. Addiction can arise due to different factors such as peer or family influence, early use, and mental illnesses. It is interesting to me that drug addiction is considered a disease because of how the drug has modified the brain to want the drug as often as the person can get it. This changes my perspective on addiction because I know some people who struggled getting over an addiction. They could not stop “cold turkey,” they had to slowly limit their drug intake until eventually, they did not crave the drug as much. I think that it must be a difficult journey when it comes to getting over addiction because the drug has modified the brain to need it. It is also interesting how family and genetic makeup could impact the risk of addiction. According to an article called “The Role of Genes in Drug Addiction,” scientists state that genetic factors are responsible for 40-60% of a person’s vulnerability to addiction. They have figured out that by mapping DNA sequences in drug addicts, they can isolate the DNA sequences that indicate a risk of becoming addicted to drugs. These sequences have info that code for specific proteins which help with the body’s functions. Depending on how well the protein can function represents how vulnerable a person is to become addicted. 

People do not realize the long-term effects of drug addiction and the impact it has on someone’s life. It can increase health issues such as the risk of a stroke, cancer, and mental health conditions. It could potentially lead to death if there is an overdose of the drug in the body. Unfortunately, drug overdose rates continue to increase as the decades pass. Drug addiction can also contribute by affecting the social aspect and lifestyle of someone. People tend to distance themselves from others. They have trouble committing to their everyday responsibilities. Some also have financial problems because they are too invested in buying the drug that they would rather buy the drug than food or other items they may need. It is unfortunate that many people fall into poor habits and most of them can't help it because the drug has already programmed their brains to want the drug. 
In conclusion, I was able to find and learn more about the brain and different factors that can be detrimental to the proper functioning of the brain. Drugs can have both positive and negative effects on the brain. There are many individuals with mental disorders that take medications, however, overdoing medication can lead to codependency. It can also lead to addiction with could negatively change someone’s life. I was able to learn more about some brain diseases and disorders and related them to my life. Unfortunately, I have seen many people who deal with mental diseases, and it shows how important it is to learn and research about brain diseases. Because we don’t know much about the brain, I think it would be beneficial to keep studying the brain, and hopefully find better ways to prevent these diseases/disorders. The main concept that I got from all of this information was that brain diseases and drugs not only have a big impact on our brains and body but our environment. They are capable of controlling someone’s life which can be dangerous for the individual. 

References

Herculano-Houzel, S.The Remarkable, Yet Not Extraordinary, Human Brain as a Scaled-Up Primate Brain and Its Associated Cost. In the Light of Evolution. Vol.VI.  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK207181/

Neurological Disorders. (n.d). Montana DPHHS. https://dphhs.mt.gov/schoolhealth/chronichealth/neurologicaldisorders#:~:text=The specific causes of neurological,cord injury or nerve injury

Brain Anatomy and How the Brain Works. (2021, July 14). John Hopkins Medicine. https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/health/conditions-and-diseases/anatomy-of-the-brain

Sartor R. The social impact of drug abuse on community life. Med Law. 1991;10(2):205-8. PMID: 1886469.https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1886469/

The Role of Genes in Drug Addiction. (2021, December 14). Heads Up Scholastic. https://headsup.scholastic.com/students/the-role-of-genes-in-drug-addiction/

Smith, I. (2021, September 22). How Does Trauma Affect the Brain? - And what it means for you. Whole Wellness Therapy. https://www.wholewellnesstherapy.com/post/trauma-and-the-brain

Brain Development in Children

The development of the brain is one of the most important features of the body as human life begins. Without our brains or with significant damage to the brain, functioning properly is impossible. The first two years are crucial for brain development as areas that control attention, processing, and memory are developed during this stage. The way the brain grows based on environmental factors as well as internal factors can greatly impact early childhood and into teenage years, and eventually throughout adulthood. Children are very receptive to the kind of attention and care they receive as they are learning more about themselves and the world. They pay attention to everything they see their parents or guardians do and try to mimic them. This is why it’s so important to make sure that children are being responsibly taken care of and given the correct attention and love they need to develop properly.

There is no one right way to raise a child but there are certainly wrong ways, like complete neglect. In psychology, we learn about different parenting styles such as, authoritarian, permissive, authoritative, and neglectful. Studies have shown that the best parenting style for children to be disciplined correctly but still have some freedom is the authoritative style. It is important that the child is growing up in an environment where they have every opportunity to be healthy and develop correctly. Many steps can be taken to ensure the child is growing up properly, including praising accomplishments, consistent and constructive discipline, making time for the child and showing them they are important, being a good role model, proper communication, loving the child, and others. Many studies have shown that children grow best when they are not neglected and aren’t exposed to extreme or consistent stress. Exposure to these things can have very negative effects on early brain development.

Taking care of a child’s physical needs is just as important as taking care of their emotional needs. There are many nutrients that are essential for healthy brain development, and making sure the child is getting the needed nutrients is vital. During early pregnancy, doctors recommend taking supplements like folic acid to help with fetal development, which helps form the neural tube, the structure that develops into the central nervous system in the fetus. Folic acid helps to prevent significant birth defects including anencephaly and spina bifida. After the child is born, ensuring they are getting the correct vitamins and nutrients is also important. Lutein is a crucial nutrient for healthy brain development, and it is found in the parts of the brain that are responsible for learning, memory, and development. Vitamin E and DHA are also very important, as they both promote developing cells in the growing brain. The body does not make vitamin E and lutein on its own, so getting the correct amounts of those in a child’s diet is extremely necessary. Breastmilk as well as fruits and vegetables house these essential nutrients. Vegetables like spinach, broccoli, green peas, and kale as well as fruits like oranges, cantaloupe, mangoes, and blueberries have many fundamental vitamins. Ensuring children are eating balanced healthy meals with fruits and vegetables is vital for avoiding preventable diseases.

              Not taking care of a child properly while pregnant can lead to serious birth defects as previously mentioned, especially if drugs and alcohol are ingested during pregnancy. After birth nutrition is also important, however, taking care of emotional and physical needs of the child are critical. Not meeting a child’s needs can have very negative effects on their development and can lead to various disorders. A study done on personality features during childhood emphasized this fact and found that childhood abuse and neglect are shown to increase the risk for personality disorders in adulthood, and abused children were four times more likely to be diagnosed with a personality disorder. These can include disorders such as paranoid, antisocial, borderline, and avoidant personality disorders, with borderline personality disorder being most prevalent in abused children. Not only is physical abuse a major contributor to personality disorders, but verbal abuse has an affect as well. In a study done with 793 mothers and children, it was found the children that were screamed at by their mothers or were told they didn’t love them were three times more likely to develop personality disorders. Of course, there are other factors that go into children developing personality disorders such as genetics, sensitivity to noises or lights, and the people the children are associated with, but there is a strong correlation between abuse and developing personality disorders. In many cases, these disorders can be easily prevented if parents take the time to tend to their children’s needs and care for them properly.

Sources: 

Sally Kuzemchak, M. S. (2022, May 11). The most important nutrients for your baby's brain, according to doctors. Parents. Retrieved November 11, 2022, from https://www.parents.com/recipes/scoop-on-food/the-most-important-nutrients-for-babys-brain/

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2022, June 15). Folic acid. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Retrieved November 11, 2022, from https://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/folicacid/about.html#:~:text=When%20the%20baby%20is%20developing,the%20early%20brain%20and%20spine.

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2022, March 25). Early Brain Development and Health. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Retrieved November 11, 2022, from https://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/childdevelopment/early-brain-development.html

Hecht, K. F., Cicchetti, D., Rogosch, F. A., & Crick, N. R. (2014, August). Borderline personality features in childhood: The role of subtype, developmental timing, and chronicity of child maltreatment. Development and psychopathology. Retrieved November 11, 2022, from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4141853/

American Psychological Association. (n.d.). What causes personality disorders? American Psychological Association. Retrieved November 11, 2022, from https://www.apa.org/topics/personality-disorders/causes

 

 

  

 Brain module

There are so many things that can go wrong in the brain. That is my first thought when looking at all of the different types of brain diseases. So much that we know about, such as why tay-sachs occurs or what is happening during multiple sclerosis, yet so much we don’t know. We have no abilities to cure or prevent these things from happening, they just simply happen. With multiple sclerosis specifically we see that there is demyelination in the brain and spinal cord which creates a slow signal through the cord. Yet we have no idea why it is happening or what to do to prevent it from continuing. There are so many diseases like this. We are getting better at mapping the brain and deciphering what is being affected and what spot in the brain it is happening at, but we still are clueless to what will actually help end these diseases. One problem that has been evident with brain diseases is that they are so variable from person to person. They present differently, they affect on different levels, and they are shown to be affected by treatments very differently. 

The brain is not only controlling so much of our physical aspects, but it also controls our thoughts and our emotions. Different chemical imbalances can affect people differently as well. It is not always a biological thing that happens. Brain injuries can even change personalities from time to time. There are so many psychological things that can happen from the brain including depression, schizophrenia, and OCD. These can also have a gradiance on how it is affecting that specific person. They also have different treatments that work better for some than others. The brain is not something that is universal. It always includes trial and error with the treatments as well. 

One big problem that we see too often is from concussions. It is a major way that children and adults are injuring their brain. When playing sports, getting in a minor accident, and any other everyday task could accidentally get hit a little too hard in the head and lead to injuries. A major problem is seen with that first point, playing sports. Students are very passionate about their sports and want to participate as much as they can. Being active is wonderful and very necessary to staying healthy, however, once a concussion occurs, it is highly likely that it will happen again. A brain injury needs time healing before we start throwing it around again, and most times we do not give it sufficient time that it needs. Protecting our brain is important and making those too young to make informative decisions take the time they need to heal is a major way we can improve the health of our brains. 

Drug Unit

Beginning the slide show I thought it was interesting that we learn about antagonists and synergists when it comes to drugs. Stopping something such as pain, or promoting something such as serotonin is a big part of why we use drugs to begin with. One thing that I thought of about antagonists is how drugs can interact with different things in our bodies in different ways. One example of this is birth control. There have been many people on birth control that still have babies because they take things that interact with the birth control and make it shut down and not do the task that it was meant to do. A major thing with this is grapefruit. Something so random that you would not think twice of eating, but could change your whole life if you end up with a child that was unplanned. 

One thing that I also thought was interesting was that there are impurities in many drugs. This took me back to organic chemistry. When making things such as crystals we would measure out our impurities through melting point and mass spectrometry. No matter how careful we were, we always seemed to get impurities within our substances. This would be attached more to drugs that people make and then sell, such as crystal meth. These drugs are already so harmful, but with other impurities it can cause extra harm to the body. Depending on what they are, they can even act as their own synergists to the drug which could enhance the effect that it has on the human body. 

Drugs have a lasting effect on the body, especially the brain. One effect that it gives is dulling of the pleasure center of the brain. Most of these drugs that people take will mimic that of chemicals that our body will already produce. By doing this, it enhances what it does, such as dulling pain, giving extreme joy and happiness, and so on. When this intake is coming on so strongly, it will begin to cause damage to the receptors, and now that high dose is becoming more and more of a duller sensation. Another effect that will happen is loss of a reward system. The body no longer needs to create these chemicals because they are found regularly in excess. Now whenever we take these, the body no longer feels as much of a high, but instead becomes dependent on them. It needs it to survive because the body no longer makes the normal amount of chemicals. Not only does the high become less of a high, but the low becomes lower. This is also because the body is not producing the normal amount of these chemicals, when the drugs are not coming in we get a very low crash of these levels. 

One major thing that surprised me within learning more about drugs, is that people start so young. Children as young as the eighth grade began intaking drugs. It was on the lower part of the chart, but it was big enough that it did get charted. One of the higher groups on the chart is in the 12th grade. Children this young are still developing their brains. Their way of thinking and pleasure centers are even in different parts of the brain. Taking drugs at this stage of life can alter their whole growing process and permanently derail their growth. Another part that really got me thinking was that 45% of Americans over the age of 12 have tried an illicit drug. That is almost half of the population of young adults or older. The fact that it is just 12 years old is crazy. How do they even have access to these things? One way that we can help prevent long term damage due to drugs is by protecting those young enough not to know better. This would also help prevent addiction which would derail their whole lives. Learning how to teach this important lesson of not experimenting with such harmful deadly things is an important thing that we should be looking into doing in a more successful way. 

In my abnormal psychology class we have talked about how drugs and alcohol are so addicting that they even can change the makeup of our brains. They change the levels that our brains receive of the drugs and chemicals, and a dependency can usually result from these things. Not only can this lead to biological changes on dependency of chemicals, but it can also cause psychological changes such as anxiety, depression with really high highs, and even suicidal thoughts. Changes in the brain can also affect things such as the peripheral nervous system and connection between the different parts of the brain and neurons. Different drug uses can affect the ability to move our muscles the way we want to and other things such as heart rate, digestive system, and everything else in between. Nerves are also unable to regenerate, meaning we can permanently damage them through drug use. Drugs leave more of a trace than for the time of it being in our systems.

Brain, Drugs, and Balance

The brain is the most complex organ in the human body. The brain is a keystone to intelligence, the creator of body movements, the interpreter of  senses, and the dictator of behavior. Although it only weighs roughly around three pounds, it has the ability to control the entirety of a human body. The brain consists of various essential pieces which each play a critical role in controlling balance in the body. The lobes of the brain, the cerebellum, and the brain stem are several examples of the portions that form the organ. Each portion is designed to monitor and govern certain tasks. Some of those tasks are memory, vision, motor learning, balance, as well as actions like breathing and heartbeat. The human brain is located in the head region near the majority of the sensory organs used for auditory, taste, smell, and vision. This allows for the body to easily transmit signals from the sensory organs to the brain. However, the brain not only receives signals from close proximity organs but also from the rest of the body. In order for the body to receive and send signals throughout, additional help is required. This additional help is the nervous system which is used to transmit signals back and forth from body to the brain and vice versa.

The nervous system is divided into two categories, the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS). The CNS includes the brain and spinal cord while the PNS consists of the nerves that are run throughout the body. For example, when you want to move your hand, a signal is passed through neurons in the PNS which eventually reaches the spinal cord (part of CNS) where it then travels to the brain and the signal is detected. After detecting the signal, the brain in return will send  a signal back through the brainstem toward the area from where the initial signal came. This type of communication is what allows for reactions like hand movement to occur in the body. Within the human body, there are two groups of functions that help monitor, regulate, and perform bodily functions. These two groups are involuntary functions and voluntary functions. Involuntary functions are continuous signals and responses that aren’t typically recognized by the common person but are vital to survival. These types of signals and responses are those like breathing and heartbeat. Both of these examples “just occur” day in and day out without the process of thinking to do it. Voluntary functions are the opposite and are signals and responses we think about before they are performed, like muscle movement.

 During the activity of signaling, the brain can send signals that also stimulate the release of hormones or that activate enzymes to perform chemical reactions. In a situation of fight or flight, not only are the signals creating muscle movement, but epinephrine, a hormone, is released to help with energy metabolism. While multiple processes occur at once in a situation of fight or flight, the brain is still responsible for regulating balance in the body. Regulation can be controlled in various forms; one being through feedback loops. Feedback loops can either be positive (promotes more stimulus through enhancers) or negative (deters more stimulus through inhibitors). As the brain sends positive feedback signals out to the body to accommodate needs and retain balance, it also watches for signals from negative feedback telling it to stop sending signals. Returning to our example of epinephrine, when in need, the body will enhance signals that aid in energy production so the muscles can move as needed. However, when the body no longer needs the extra energy, the brain will detect a negative feedback signal and it will inhibit sending signals for more energy. The regulation in the body is to ensure that it stays balanced and at homeostasis while thousands of actions occur throughout the body simultaneously. 

Maintaining balance in the body can be challenging at times. Even though the brain controls our body movements, our intelligence, and behavior; there are many other organs and body parts that have to function correctly to maintain homeostasis. An ancient form of medicine known as Ayurveda bases its foundation around balance of the body, mind, and spirit. This type of treatment is a more natural treatment method compared to modern western medicine. Even though it treats its patients in a very different format, it has proven to be effective in several studies. 

The well-being of a human is not only physical but mental and social as well. Ayurveda, through natural medicine, strives to provide treatment in all three areas providing a better overall health in a person. Unfortunately, sometimes this type of treatment is insufficient and a different type of treatment is needed. Someone with diabetes is unable to correct the imbalance of blood glucose levels by natural means due to the low levels of insulin naturally produced by the body. In this scenario, artificial insulin injections must be administered so that the glucose in the blood can be broken down and the blood glucose levels can return to normal levels. In another scenario related to glucose levels, if there is a deficiency in any enzyme used in glycogenolysis, then glycogen storages could not be broken down into a usable form of energy for cells to use. This would result in the person having to look for an alternative solution to regain this balance in the body. In order to regain energy consumption balance in the body, the person would have to eat carbohydrates about every half hour to provide the body with enough glucose in the blood to be sufficient for their energy requirements. This solution isn’t a modern western medicine that uses artificial drugs but is a form of treatment using natural resources in an unnatural way. There are many other diseases, illnesses, and deficiencies that require drugs to be introduced into the body to make sure the body stays in balance.

It is very interesting how quickly the brain can adapt to new situations. The brain is able to filter through substances that come into contact with the Blood-Brain Barrier (BBB) and either grant or deny the entrance of molecules into the microenvironment of neurons. If the brain grants access for a molecule to pass through the barrier, cellular transport channels (amino acid transporters) will assist in its passing. When certain drugs or medications are needed, they are introduced into the body by one of three ways; orally, inhaled, or intravenously. These drug molecules are created to be able to pass through the BBB and influence stimulus within the body. Sometimes the drugs directly contain the solution, sometimes they enhance or inhibit the release of hormones, and sometimes they activate or deactivate enzymes. There are many other ways drugs can react in the body but those are some examples. If the drugs are administered in precise amounts, the person will actually benefit from the molecule being introduced into the body. In some ways, it is as if the brain works “alongside” the drug to maintain or regain balance in the body. Common drugs like NSAIDS (Advil, Ibuprofen), over the counter pain and inflammatory drugs, are used to enhance the body’s reaction to pain or inflammation. These drugs and many others can work with the brain to fix a large majority of big and small interruptions that help maintain body balance. Even though modern western medicine has its perks, it does not always work. There are many diseases that exist that do not have cures, some that only have temporary treatments, and others that have no treatment option. What I found most interesting is that many of those diseases attack the brain directly.

Mental illnesses exist in various forms and unfortunately the commonality of these diseases is increasing. These types of illnesses are difficult to understand and many can be vigorous. For me personally, thinking of the responsibility and the necessity of the brain and then knowing that there are illnesses that exist that affect the main control center of our bodies leaves an uneasy feeling. What does one do when the main organ that controls the body is now not working one hundred percent efficiently? Diseases and disorders like Alzheimers, Dementia, Depression, Schizophrenia, Drug Abuse, and many more all have very distinct differences but all directly attack the brain in one way or another. Some may affect a certain location of the brain and others may affect multiple. You may see that it throws chemical balances off by either inhibition or by an over enhancement. Some can be caused by genetics, others by environmental factors, and others we cause for ourselves. It can vary depending on the disease or disorder but the results don’t only affect the brain but also other bodily functions. Since the brain controls the balance of the entire body, when it is not balanced itself, it is unable to maintain balance of the body overall. This can lead to more complications occurring, it can result in alterations in the body that can cause more diseases, and the list goes on. Scientists and researchers have been working for years on developing treatments for people who suffer from mental health. Ayurveda has shown to help with forms of Dementia and Alzheimers and modern western medication has shown to help with diseases like Schizophrenia and drug abuse rehabilitation. Other alterations that involve prions do not have any type of treatment to help with symptoms or with slowing the development of the disease. 

The body is unique and very sophisticated and the brain which controls it matches in complexity. Balance of all living matter is essential to life and that includes the balance of the body. The brain is the organ in control and when functioning normally, it is able to balance the body as thousands of reactions occur at once. Science has provided methods to treat the imbalance of the body to maintain proper health. Various forms of treatment ranging from natural resources to artificial drugs have been created to work alongside the brain to ensure that balance stays in check. The overall well-being of a human depends on their physical, mental, and spiritual health. For years science has provided new medications and treatments to keep our physical health in balance when the body needs assistance in doing so. Pastors, religion, faith, and other forms of spiritual growth and health have been established for years to help people find a spiritual balance. In today's world, the battle lies in the mental health of humans. Numbers in detrimental mental illnesses are increasing and the focus is fixed on these issues. The brain is vital to our health and the understanding of this organ is crucial. Researchers understand the severity of the issue and many studies and a lot of time are being designated to this problem at hand. As technology and knowledge advances, so can the hope that there are solutions out there. With a more complete understanding of health, metabolism, the brain, and the function of drugs, the solution only becomes easier to find.  

 

Brain and Drugs

The brain is divided into two hemispheres. These hemispheres are connected by a structure called the corpus callosum. The corpus callosum is composed of white matter containing around 200 million myelinated fibers. The largest part of the brain is called the cerebrum. The cerebrum appears as a wrinkled surface because it is filled with gyri or the singular form gyrus. The gyri increases the surface area of the brian which increases the amount of neurons which can be associated with a higher level of intelligence. The cerebrum i divided into 4 lobes, Frontal, temporal, parietal, and occipital. Each lobe has different functions. The frontal lobe is located in the front of the cerebrum, It is associated with problem solving, decision making, and muscle movement. The parietal lobe is commonly associated with pain perception, pressure, touch and visual functions. The temporal lobe is associated with visual and auditory memory. The occipital lobe is important in recognizing visual stimuli and processing what we see. The next section of the brain is called the cerebellum and it is divided in half. Also called the small brain, and it is filled with neurons that control coordinated body movements and other essential functions. The cerebrum and the cerebellum make up the superficial portion of our brain. 

The brain also consists of the brian stem. The brainstem is the lower part of the brain and is composed of different parts. These are the midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata. The brain stem has both gray and white matter. The gray matter is filled with neuron cell bodies and the white matter with the axons. Ten out of twelve cranial nerves originate in the brain stem all but the olfactory nerve and the optic nerve which are associated with smell and vision. There are many crucial functions that are controlled by the brain stem.These include heart rate, respiratory rate, circadian cycle for sleeping, and plays part in eating by interpreting when you are full or not. Due to the functions of the brain stem, death of the brain stem will result in actual death since there will be no longer independent respirations and the heart will eventually stop. It should be fairly simple declaring death of the brian stem but now with medical technology you can artificially keep the heart beating and oxygenating the body so it is much more complex to actually  declare brain death now regardless  that  tha patient will never regain those functions or their own. Due to the brain stem's role in consciousness after the brain stem dies a person will never regain consciousness again. 

As  previously stated the frontal lobe iss important in many roles. To highlight those again it is associated with voluntary movement, or movement of skeletal muscles, expressive language, and executive functions, such as decision making. The frontal lobe is very slowly developing. It is said that on average the frontal lobe is not fully developed till the age of 25. This is often why a lot of people essay not to make crazy life decisions before that age since your executive functions are not fully functional. There are some important structures in the frontal lobe. One of those being broca's area. Broca's area is associated with language development. There are cases such as phineas gage who had an injury to broca's area. Phineas gage was a railroad worker who had a railroad spike go through his head and he lived but he did have a big change in temperament and he had lost the ability to form words. He became much angrier and it was said before the injury he was pretty well mannered. It was very surprising he lived seeing the injury he took and how the railroad spike went fully through his skull. Broca's area is only associated with language formation though not language comprehension so people with what is called broca's aphasia can still understand other people they just can't form words on their own. The area that controls language comprehension is not in the frontal lobe. Damage to other areas of the frontal lobe can result in many things such as paralysis, sequencing or planning out movements, as already mentioned brocas aphasia, loss of spontaneity,  attention deficits, insatiable moods, inability to problem solve, disinhibition, lack of motivation, social behavior or personality changes.

These may also be associated with different diseases that affect the frontal lobe such as frontal lobe syndrome. 

The temporal lobe is often associated with auditory processing and encoding memories. As previously stated the temporal lobe is in the cerebrum and it is located by the ear. There is an important structure in the temporal lobe called Wernicke's area. I explained earlier how language comprehension was separated from language formation and language comprehension in the temporal lobe is Wernicke's area. Wernicke's aphasia looks very different from broca's aphasia. There is no issue with the formation of words so a patient will often speak words but they do not make any sense. They can't form sentences or understand sentences, they can just talk in random orders. The temporal lobe is also highly associated with long and short term encoding of memories so often Alzheimer's disease which is the buildup of plaques will be affecting the temporal lobes causing dementia or loss of memory. There are two types of amnesia, Anterograde and retrograde. Anterograde is where you can't form new memories after an event and retrograde is where you can't retrieve old memories before an event occurred. Damage in the temporal lobe may present itself as imparied verbal or nonverbal memory, wernicke's aphasia, impaired learning, direction troubles, impaired ability in recalling, difficulty recognizing people or stimuli, impulse control, deafness, amnesia, hallucination. 

One disease that may be associated with the temporal lobe is dyslexia. Patients with dyslexia commonly have decreased activity in their left temporal lobe. This usually presents as difficulty reading and understanding meanings of words or language. This can make learning and school very hard. The diagnosis usually occurs earlier on in life as children or young adults. Some symptoms of dyslexia may be not reaching developmental milestones, difficulty learning to speak and read, when learning to write they may reverse numbers and letters, difficulty processing sounds, and issues with coordination and concentration. Managing dyslexia is different for everyone but sometimes looks like adapting and using learning tools that work for them, guiding and supporting them, and continual evaluation. 

The function of the parietal lobe is to process somatosensory information. This information includes proprioception, touch, spatial perception, navigation, language processing, and pain. There are sometimes strokes in the parietal lobe. A stroke is when a blood clot travels to the brian and cuts off or reduces blood flow to parts of the brain preventing it from getting the appropriate amount of oxygen. A loos of blood flow to the parietal lobe can cause speech impairment, or deficits to thought coordination, and movement. There may also be symptoms such as abnormal sensations, inability to see out of the lower half of the eye, disorientation, loss of proprioception or not knowing how you are oriented, impulsive or inappropriate behaviors or cautious or hesitant behaviors( depending on what side of the brain is losing blood flow). There are some medical conditions associated with the parietal lobe such as gerstmann syndrome and apraxia. 

The occipital lobe is located in the back of the brain above the cerebellum. Its primary focus is auditory processing such as color, morphology, and motion. Vision is very complex and the occipital lobe plays a large role in processing it. There are some important structures in this slope including brodmann area 17, the ventral stream, the dorsomedial stream, the lateral geniculate bodies, and the lingula. Damage to this lobe may result in epilepsy, movement difficulties, perception difficulties, hallucinations, inability to detect movement, difficulty reading and writing, difficulty with fine motor skills. 

There are many types of disorders that are a result of something in the brain that is out of balance, The categories of these disorders are neurological disorders, storage disorders, personality disorders, mood disorders, developmental disorders, and prion diseases. All of these have different effects on everyone, some may be very minor and manageable and some may be fatal and incurable. They also may affect people at different stages of their life. They can also be onset from brian damage, or events or they may be genetic. 

There is something really interesting about our brain though. In some uncommon cases where a brian is damaged only in one hemisphere and it is discovered at a very young age there is a special procedure called a hemispherectomy. This entails removing the whole hemisphere of the brain that is damaged. This is usually only performed in very young patients and the younger they are the more likely they will live a relatively normal life. Most of the time this will only be performed in the first six years of life. After this procedure the cerebrum reorganizes its neurons to compensate for those lost in many cases there will be unequal capabilities between the sides of the body but it's truly amazing that people may live a relatively normal life with only half of their brain. This Procedure is commonly used for seizures that are localized to one side of the brain. 

Alzheimer's disease is a disease that is caused by the build up of beta-amyloid plaques in areas of the brain. It often results in memory loss or dementia. There is no definitive cause to what causes these plaques to build. There is a genetic predisposition to it in some patients. Many ad patients also have neurofibrillary tangles as well that may cause neuronal death. There is no cure to alzheimers but many treatments are tried to lessen or delay the symptoms.

There are many diseases that affect the brian and all present differently and affect different parts or multiple parts of the brain they range in severity as well as if they are treatable/curable or not. They also have different ages of onset. Some examples of diseases in the brain that have not previously been mentioned are multiple sclerosis, tay sachs, huntington's disease, parkinson's disease, schizophrenia, ocd, bi-polar disorder, autism, depression, and ALS. These are all very different from each other but thats why the brian is so unique because there are so many ways that even the tiniest but of damage can destroy the balance of your body. Ayurveda would describe each of these diseases as different imbalances for example, alzheimer's disease would be an imbalance in a misfolded protein, parkinsons would be an imbalance in dopamine concentration, alzheimers is also often associated with an imbalance in acetylcholine. This is a fraction of what we know about the brain and we know very little about it. Studying the brain is very challenging and there is still a lot more research to be done. 

There are many types of drugs, many ways drugs can be administered, and many effects of drugs. One thing all drugs must have in common is they must have the capability to pass the blood brain barrier. Drugs interfere with the brain by affecting the chemical signaling pathways in the brain. The brain uses neurons that generate action potentials that cause the release of neurotransmitters to enter the synapse between two neurons. These neurotransmitters are chemicals that can have different effects on the postsynaptic neuron. They can either send excitatory or inhibitory signals. To measure the effectiveness of a drug they test the ability to affect this chemical signaling process in a specific way at a certain point. So an SSRI or a serotonin reuptake inhibitor stops the brain's ability to reuptake the serotonin in the brain. Serotonin is an inhibitory neurotransmitter that is associated with mood and an imbalance in serotonin or a deficiency is often linked to depression. SSRI’s make us have higher levels of serotonin. Different drugs have different effects for different neurons and affect different points in the pathway.
Prodrugs are compounds that are inactive when they enter the body but by some natural body mechanism get activated inside the body. Prodrugs are often a good strategy to avoid unwanted side effects. There are two types of prodrugs type 1 and type 2. Type 1 prodrugs are activated inside the cells and type 2 are activated outside the cell usually in blood or other fluids such as lymph. There are two different designs for prodrugs as well, carrier-linked, and bioprecursor. Carrier-linked prodrugs are connected to another medication and this linkage is broken when entering the body. Bioprecursor prodrugs are chemically modified versions of an active form of the drug and different enzymes will activate them.  Prodrugs are generally used when they need to target a certain area of the body and will travel through the body inactivated until it gets to target. This is why it can help avoid side effects. 

Drugs can be very useful but can also be very dangerous. Recreational drugs such as fentanyl have led to many fatalities. Fentanyl poisoning/overdose has become the leading cause of death. Fentanyl can be used in a clinical setting though. Fentanyl can be used as a very stone painkiller about 50-100 times stronger than morphine. It is also very addictive and is commonly laced with recreational drugs which can often lead to fatalities. Fentanyl is a good example of how useful drugs can be and how dangerous they can be if not handled appropriately. 

Another aspect of drugs is when taking more than one type of drug combined with another. There are two types of drug interactions. Antagonism where the drugs cause opposite effects and essentially cancel eachother out. Or drug synergism where they interact and the effect becomes heightened due to the interaction. Naloxone is antagonistic to opioids which is why in case of an opioid overdose naloxone is often used to reverse the effects of the drugs. An example of synergism is opioids combined with analgesics, This heightens the effect of opioids. 

In conclusion, Many drugs have different effects on the brain. As previously discussed the brain is a very diverse organ that we are still learning about so it can be very difficult formulating drugs that do the correct thing and can pass through the blood brain barrier. There is a wider variety of types of drugs and sometimes they have unintended effects on other systems which can result in many outcomes. 

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK448209/

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK448209/ 

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK448209/ 

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK544297/

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phineas_Gage 

https://www.health.qld.gov.au/abios/asp/bfrontal 

https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/temporal-lobe 

https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/neuroscience/parietal-lobe https://www.verywellhealth.com/effects-of-a-parietal-lobe-stroke-3146435