The brain is a surprisingly complex organ. This organ, consisting of an average of 86 billion neurons and 85 billion other cells, can control our entire body. When every one of the 171 billion cells does its intended job, the brain is a beautiful work of art. Unfortunately for many humans, the cells of the brain, especially the neurons, begin having problems and acting up, causing many illnesses, diseases, and even disabilities. With all the different diseases associated with the brain, we can create five categories to understand them better. These categories consist of neurological disorders, storage disorders, personality and mood disorders, and developmental and prion diseases.
Neurological
diseases affect an individual's motor function, emotional control, and
psychological and cognitive abilities. Some examples of diseases in this group
are Multiple Sclerosis, Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, and
Huntington's disease. Each of these diseases has similarities but also has many
differences.
First,
we will look closely at Multiple Sclerosis (MS). As we dive into the details of
MS, we see that it is slow to progress, characterized by patches of
demyelination around the axon of the neurons in the central nervous system,
brain, and spinal cord. The onset of the disease is typically between the ages
of 20 and 40 and is more common in women. Symptoms of MS vary significantly
between individuals but may include paresthesias, weakness in extremities,
visual disturbances, vertigo, difficulty speaking, changes in emotion and
cognitive behavior, and moderate to severe neuropathic pain. MS has multiple
forms of treatment. The most common treatment is the use of corticosteroids and
β-interferon to prevent relapses. While this can be a very aggressive disease, there
are instances of remission where ten years or more may pass without any
progression. During this period, the body can make significant steps towards
recovery and ease many of the developed symptoms.
Alzheimer's
disease has no known cause. Some affected individuals inherit it, while others
have genetic mutations that cause an early onset of symptoms. The plaques
identify Alzheimer's disease (AD) in the brain, showing the loss of cells and,
ultimately, loss of function. The plaques can occur in several locations
throughout the brain and different lobes of the brain. The plaques that we see
are an indicator of the protein β-amyloid being present in an overabundance.
Β-Amyloid is a protein originating from a precursor protein that neurons need
to function appropriately, amyloid precursor protein (APP). These proteins are
typically used by the neuron and destroyed appropriately. However, in the case
of AD, the APP is cut by an enzyme in the wrong location. When the APP is cut,
it produces an abnormal amount of β-amyloid. While the brain is equipped to
remove a small portion of β-amyloid, it is not equipped to remove a large
amount from the brain, and thus the plaques begin to form, resulting in the
death of surrounding neurons.
Certain
foods are known as "brain food" and reportedly will increase the
function of the brain. For example, leafy greens such as kale, spinach,
broccoli, and collard greens are rich in "brain-healthy" nutrients
such as vitamin K, lutein, folate, and β carotene. Fatty fish is also a well-known
brain food, abundant in omega-3 fatty acids and unsaturated fats. Fatty fish
also links to the removal of β-amyloid in the brain. For those who dislike
fish, flaxseeds, avocados, and walnuts are excellent sources of omega-3 fatty
acids and unsaturated fats. Berries are rich in flavonoids, the natural plant
pigment in berries that give them their color, have been linked to improved
memory and have been shown to delay the onset of memory loss in women if
consumed twice a week. Walnuts are an excellent source of proteins and healthy
fats. Walnuts, in particular, are great for improving one's memory, thus
increasing cognitive functions. In addition, these nuts will lower one's blood
pressure and clean the HDL out of the arteries (Harvard, 2021).
As
we look at foods that will increase our brain's overall performance and
functioning power, we find foods such as fatty fish, salmon, trout, herring,
tuna, and sardines, which are all rich sources of omega-3 fatty acids. With our
brains being approximately 60% fat, and about half of that fat is comprised of
omega-3 fatty acids, including more fatty acids in our diet is crucial for the
proper function of the brain. Omega-3 fatty acids are utilized to build brain
cells and repair nerve cells. Omega-3 fatty acids have been shown to impede the
progression of several age-related mental illnesses, such as AD, and prevent
mental decline. The lack of omega-3 fatty acids in one's diet is related to
several learning impairments and can increase depression levels in individuals.
Maintaining a diet that regularly consists of omega-3 fatty acids can increase
memory, improve mood, and protect the brain against cognitive decline.
Blueberries
are another powerful brain food full of antioxidants and anthocyanins.
Anthocyanins are chemical compounds that have anti-inflammatory properties and
antioxidant effects. Antioxidants actively combat oxidative stress and other
factors contributing to brain decline and neurodegenerative diseases. With an
abundance of these antioxidants, there becomes a build-up in the brain, which
helps to increase communication between brain cells. Blueberries also improve
memory and cognitive processing, especially in children and older adults.
Turmeric
has similar benefits as omega-3 fatty acids in that it can improve memory,
boost mood, and aid in producing new brain cells. The active ingredient in
turmeric is curcumin, which has been shown to cross the blood-brain barrier and
directly interact with brain cells. Curcumin has been shown to improve memory
capabilities in individuals suffering from AD and can remove the β-amyloid
build-up in the brain. In addition, curcumin acts as a serotonin and dopamine
boost; these neurotransmitters are known for their positive effect on
individuals' emotions and overall mood—this increase in serotonin and dopamine
link to a decrease in depression and anxiety. Curcumin supplements have been
most influential in bettering one's mood when used in conjunction with standard
treatment. Curcumin has also been shown to boost growth factors produced in the
brain for the production of new brain cells and helps decline the delay of
standard mental decline. While curcumin has proven beneficial in these areas,
it must be taken as a supplement to consume large enough quantities for any
progress to be seen.
Foods
high in zinc, magnesium, copper, and iron have been protecting the brain from
free-radical damage caused by oxidation. in addition, zinc links to several
neurological conditions, such as depression, AD, and Parkinson's disease. Zinc
is crucial for the completion of nerve signaling. The body uses copper for the
reverse objective: to control nerve signals and limit their effectiveness. An
imbalance in copper can lead to AD. Along with the others, magnesium also
positively affects one's body. It links to improved learning abilities and
memory function. Low magnesium levels in the body can lead to depression,
migraines, and epilepsy. Iron is a beneficial mineral in the body as it not
only allows our erythrocytes to carry oxygen to every tissue but it also can
reduce a condition known as brain fog, where the brain's processing power seems
to be reduced (Jennings, 2021).
While
there are foods that increase brain function, there are also foods that will
decrease the brain's ability to function correctly and can lead to certain
neurological disorders. Foods high in fructose increase insulin resistance in
the brain, reduce brain function, and impede learning abilities, memory
function, and the formation of new neurons. Refined carbohydrates increase
blood sugar levels and lead to a high glycemic load (GL). During
experimentation, a meal that induces a high GL can impair memory and cause
inflammation in the hippocampus. Inflammation of the hippocampus can cause AD
and dementia after prolonged periods. Consumption of foods high in trans-fat
increases the risk for AD, poor memory function, and continually declining
cognitive functioning. A study on 38 women showed that individuals who consumed
higher levels of saturated fats had poorer memory functions and worse
recognition capabilities. This study may suggest that while tans fat is
exceptionally bad, higher fat concentrations, regardless of the type, will
negatively affect the brain. Artificial sweeteners are linked to increased
rates of depression, strokes, and dementia (Mandi, 2018).
While
more natural substances have a significant effect on the brain, drugs also have
a big impact on the way the brain functions. Drugs are classified as any
substance that alters the way the brain functions. Drugs come in many forms,
have many functions, have severely different side effects, and can be used
either legally or illegally. Some drugs will increase the receptiveness within
the synapse, while others may decrease the number of neurotransmitters absorbed
in the synapse. Some drugs will increase the release of neurotransmitters into
the synapse to be absorbed, while others can reduce the total amount. Drugs are
designed in a way meant to exploit the normal functions of the brain in a way
that we deem desirable. Pharmaceutical companies and other drug synthesizers
need to know about the chemical structure associated with specific synaptic
receptors to achieve this exploitation. Once the structure of the receptors is
known, we can construct a complementary chemical compound in structure and
molecular binding. This allows for the correct binding at the correct receptors
within the brain.
As
drugs are being synthesized, the 3D shape and structure are critical as a
backward functional group can lead to the drug not binding or binding too well
and never being released. The drug would be deemed ineffective and modified to
a different stereochemical structure in both instances. As we take a closer
look at the difference between illegal and legal drugs, we see that the
differences exhibited are incredibly minor and have to do with the addition/deletion
of a functional group or the functional group being placed on the opposite side
of the molecule at the same binding site. A great example of this is
methamphetamine, known as crystal meth, and amphetamine, known as Adderall. As
we look at the chemical structure of the two molecules, we see that
methamphetamine only varies in one area, a distinct methyl group attached to
the nitrogen, whereas amphetamine contains a hydrogen atom. This simple
difference is all that determines the legality of a drug. Of course, it is not
necessarily that simple that a functional group results in different side
effects, both long-term and short-term.
When
the government determines the legality of a drug, they look at eight
determining factors. That will lead to the drug being placed into one of five
schedules, with Schedule I being the most dangerous, having no medical use, and
having a high likelihood for dependencies. The determining factors include the
potential for medical use, the potential for abuse, and the potential
repercussions of said abuse, the full knowledge we have regarding the
substance, how the substance may affect the public, whether the substance is an
immediate precursor to a previous control substance, and the potential for
dependencies or safety concerns. Ultimately, whether a substance becomes
illegal will be made based on the belief that if released to the public, it
would do more harm than good, at least in theory. This is all based on the
Controlled Substances Act published in 1971 (DEA).
There
are several different routes that individuals can take to introduce drugs into
the body. The slowest option is through ingestion. This takes the longest
because it requires the substance to be broken down and pass through the mucous
membrane lining the GI tract, typically of the small intestines. Inhaling
substances is a faster way to introduce the substance to the blood. This is
because the substance is directly introduced to the permeable mucous membrane in
a highly vascular area. Injecting the substance directly into the bloodstream
has the fastest results and is typically the route used for illegal drug usage.
Once the drugs enter the bloodstream, they are transported throughout the body.
Eventually, the substance is presented to the blood-brain barrier, where only a
select few molecules can cross. If the substance can cross the blood-brain
barrier, it then has the potential to interact with the neurons. At this point,
the chemical structure becomes extremely important, as mentioned prior. There
are instances of substances being used to affect neurons outside of the brain.
These substances and methods are typically legal and performed by healthcare
professionals. An example of this would be a local nerve block used during
surgery.
An
interesting side effect of utilizing legal and illegal substances is that they
can change the brain's work for the rest of the individual's life. If we look
at lesser drugs, such as caffeine, we can see that the synapses respond to the
interference by creating more and more receptors for melatonin. This response
from the brain makes much sense as we look at the actual function of caffeine.
Caffeine interacts with the receptors that uptake melatonin by binding to them
and out-competing the common neurotransmitter. This leads to an excess of
melatonin in the synapse and nowhere to go. If used once or twice, the body
thinks it made an error and releases too much, re-absorbing the
neurotransmitter and moving one. When used habitually, this continual excess of
melatonin encourages the body to produce more and more receptors, as it thinks
the issue is due to the receptors failing to bind appropriately, which is
essentially true. After an extended period, there is an increase in receptors
and an increase in neurotransmitters. This increase in receptors would then
require an increase in caffeine consumption to get the results that the initial
usage had. Every drug that interferes with the proper functioning of the
neurons within the brain will lead to an increased release of
neurotransmitters, an increase in the total number of neurotransmitter
receptors, or both, resulting in lasting consequences in individuals.
DEA. “Drug Scheduling.” DEA, United States Drugs Enforcement Administration, https://www.dea.gov/drug-information/drug-scheduling.
Harvard. “Foods Linked to Better Brainpower.” Harvard Health, Harvard Health Publishing, 6 Mar. 2021, https://www.health.harvard.edu/healthbeat/foods-linked-to-better-brainpower.
Jennings, Kerri-Ann. “11 Best Foods to Boost Your Brain and Memory.” Healthline, Healthline Media, 18 June 2021, https://www.healthline.com/nutrition/11-brain-foods#TOC_TITLE_HDR_2.
Mandl, Elise. “The 7 Worst Foods for Your Brain.” Healthline, Healthline Media, 28 Jan. 2018, https://www.healthline.com/nutrition/worst-foods-for-your-brain#TOC_TITLE_HDR_4.
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